IC-NRLF 


JAMES  H, SMITH 


PREVOCATIONAL 

AND 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

By 

HARRY  E.  WOOD 

Director   of    Manual   Training 

Indianapolis   Public   Schools 

And 

JAMES  H.  SMITH 

Supervisor  of  the   Principal's   Course 

Whitewater  State  Normal  School 

Whitewater,  Wisconsin 

(Formerly  Teacher  of  Mathematics  and  Manual  Training 
School  of   Education,   University  of   Chicago) 


With   Illustrations   by 

HARRY  E.  WOOD 


1919 

CHICAGO 
ATKINSON,  MENTZER  &  COMPANY 


s.s. 


COPTRIGHT    1919    BY 
ATKINSON,  MENTZER  &  COMPANY 
ALL    RIGHTS    RKSERVED 


PREFACE 


Changing  industrial  and  social  conditions  demand  changes 
along  educational  lines.  In  the  early  period  of  our  national  devel- 
opment manufacturing  was  done  in  the  home  and  a  child  had 
a  chance  to  observe  the  work  of  his  parents  or  his  older  brothers 
or  sisters,  and  thus  absorb  the  means  and  methods  of  work. 
In  the  present  stage  of  production  on  a  large  scale,  everything 
is  so  highly  specialized  that  the  young  employed  worker  does 
not  even  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  what  is  taking  place 
in  other  parts  of  the  plant  in  which  he  works.  The  school  there- 
fore faces  the  problem  of  giving  as  broad  a  knowledge  of  indus- 
tries and  occupations  as  is  possible  with  the  facilities  and  equip- 
ment available,  thus  supplying  what  was  formerly  obtained  from 
the  home  and  small  shop. 

The  mere  acquiring  of  the  so-called  fundamentals  is  not 
sufficient  to  equip  the  children  of  today  so  that  they  can  intelli- 
gently choose  their  life  work.  They  should  have  a  taste  of 
industrial  work  in  a  prevocational  way  in  order  that  they  may, 
with  some  degree  of  intelligence,  choose  occupations  for  which 
they  are  fitted.  It  is  not  presumed  that  the  brief  courses  in  our 
public  schools  will  make  them  proficient  in  any  craft  or  occupa- 
tion, but  leaders  in  education  realize  that  personal  dislikes, 
mental  and  physical  deficiencies  and  lack  of  dexterity  can  early 
be  discovered  through  prevocational  industrial  courses.  These 
courses  result  in  the  development  of  a  keen  interest  on  the  part 
of  many  pupils  in  perhaps  one  or  two  lines  together  with  a 
limited  degree  of  skill  in  manipulating  the  tools  of  these  trades 
or  occupations  as  well  as  a  discernment  of  their  content. 

With  these  thoughts  in  mind,  the  authors  of  this  book  have 
endeavored  to  present  various  lines  of  work  in  such  a  fashion 
that  pupils  of  the  grammar  grades  or  prevocational  period  may 
understand  and  make  use  of  them ;  that  high  school  or  vocational 
school  pupils  may  profitably  use  them  for  informational  or 
manipulative  suggestions  and  that  individuals,  who  are  not 
in  school,  but  who  are  seeking  help  in  the  details  of  the  crafts 
covered  in  this  volume,  can  find  the  guidance  which  they  need. 
It  is  impossible  to  cover  all  of  the  details  of  each  craft  in  the 
brief  space  allotted  to  each  subject  in  this  volume,  but  sufficient 
details  have  been  given  to  enable  the  reader  to  do  effective 
work  in  the  subjects  under  consideration. 

416187 


No  courses  of  study  are  suggested  in  this  book.  A  variety 
of  projects  have  been  suggested,  some  of  which  will  appeal  to 
pupils  in  a  city  or  village  and  some  of  which  will  appeal  more 
particularly  to  pupils  in  a  rural  community,  but  it  is  left  to  the 
instructor  or  individual-  to  evolve  his  seauence  of  work.  By 
means  of  this  breadth  of  selected  projects  and  the  group  arrange- 
ment of  the  .book,  it  is  made  easily  adjustable  to  the  needs  of 
any  local  situation.  At  the  same  time  information  on  work 
outside  of  the  particular  community  is  brought  before  the 
pupils.  It  is  the  idea  of  the  authors  that  the  projects  given  in 
this  text  be  used  as  suggestive  material  and  redesigned  or 
developed  to  suit  the  individual  needs  of  the  pupil.  The  mere 
fact  that  one  subject  is  presented  in  this  book  before  another, 
does  not  necessarily  mean  that  it  should  be  studied  in  that  order; 
in  fact,  it  may  not  be  possible  or  advisable  to  undertake  all  of 
the  lines  of  work  suggested  because  of  inadequate  equipment 
or  lack  of  interest  in  some  subjects  in  certain  communities. 

It  is  hoped  that  in  this  text  a  real  need  in  the  school  will 
be  met.  It  has  been  developed  by  the  authors  at  the  suggestion 
of  educators  who  have  felt  the  need  of  a  book  which  would  set 
forth  the  informational  side  of  manual  arts  in  connection  with  a 
variety  of  subjects  and  projects  of  an  industrial  character.  In 
this  way  content  is  emphasized  as  well  as  skill. 

THE  AUTHORS. 


CONTENTS 


PREFACE     1 

SHOP  EQUIPMENT 3 

WOODWORKING  TOOLS  3 

MATERIALS  AND  PROCESSES— 

Grinding  and  Whetting  Tools   30 

Wood  and  Lumber '35 

Wood  Fasteners   42 

Sand   Paper    52 

Wood  Finishes    53 

Glass  and  Window  Glazing 58 

Chair   Seating 62 

MECHANICAL   DRAWING    72 

COMMON  JOINTS  AND  CONSTRUCTIONS 90 

WOODWORKING— 

Operations    92 

Projects   97 

JIGS  AND  TRICKS   '....154 

FACTORY   ORGANIZATION    158 

SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS— 

Gardening    160 

Canning  Vegetables   167 

Seed    Corn 169 

Raising   Poultry    172 

Raising  Hogs 182 

CONCRETE     .188 

METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING. 212 

PAPER  AND  PRINTING— 

Paper    226 

Printing 231 

SHOE  REPAIRING    241 

ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION— 

Bell  Wiring 252 

Telegraph  Circuits   259 

Motors    262 

Generators     264 

Light  Wiring 265 

INDEX  .267 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 

SHOP  EQUIPMENT 

To  do  good  work,  one  must  have  good  tools.  Only  standard 
brands  should  be  purchased.  Not  a  great  variety  of  tools  is 
necessary  for  all  kinds  of  work.  One  can  make  many  useful 
articles  with  just  those  tools  double  starred  in  the  list  below,  but 
it  is  better  to  have  also  those  which  are  single  starred. 

A  good  work  bench  is  also  essential.  It  can  be  purchased 
complete  or  can  be  made  and  a  vise  added.  The  bench  should 
be  fastened  securely  to  the  floor.  One  should  not  attempt  to 
work  in  a  poorly  lighted  room,  since  so  much  depends  upon 
accuracy.  A  damp  room  should  also  be  avoided  because  the 
tools  will  rust  in  such  a  place.  A  rack  for  holding  the  tools 
should  be  built  on  or  near  the  bench  and  a  place  for  each  tool 
established.  Each  tool  should  be  kept  in  the  place  made  for 
it  when  not  in  use.  Tools  should  occasionally  be  greased  with 
lubricating  oil  or  vaseline  to  keep  them  from  rusting. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


CUTTING   „ 
TOOLS 


SAWS 


PLANES 


Cross  cut 

Rip 

Back 

Mitre 

Key  hole 

Turning 

Coping 

Jack 

Smoothing 

Jointer 

Block 

Spoke  shave 

Router 


BORING 
TOOLS 


**    (  Brace 
HOLDERS  I  Hand  drill 


BITS 


*  f  Firmer 
**      Framing 

CHISELS       •{  Mortise 

*  Gouge 
[Veining 

rSloyd 

KNIVES   **  ^  Pocket 
IDraw 


CHOPPING 
TOOLS 


LAYING  OUT 
TOOLS 


~,     (Axe 

«,  -j  Hatchet 

Udze 
fRule 

Try  Square 
J  Framing  square 
|  Marking  gauge 

Dividers 
LTee  bevel 


HOLDING 
TOOLS 


DRIVING 
TOOLS 


SCRAPING 
TOOLS 


**    fGimlet 

*  Dowel 
**      Auger 

J  Twist    drill 

*  J  Expansive 

Forstner 
**    [Countersink 


Saw    horse 
Vise 

Bench  hook 
Bench    stop 
Hand   screw 
Carriage    clamp 
Cabinet    clamp 
.Mitre   box 


**   f  Hammer 

Mallet 
•{  Screw   driver 

Nail  set 
[Wrench 


(  Scrapers 
I  Files 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.Z 


SAWS 

The  tool  first  used  in  getting  out  stock  is  the  saw.  There 
are  several  varieties  adapted  to  various  uses,  but  they  are  all 
grouped  in  two  general  classes,  i.  e.,  crosscut  and  rip.  As  the 
name  indicates,  cross  cut  saws  are  designed  to  cut  across  the 
grain  and  rip  saws  are  designed  to  rip  boards  apart  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  grain.  Wood  can  be  separated  easily  in  the  direction 
of  the  grain,  but  the  fibers  of  which  it  is  composed  are  tough 
and  hard  to  separate  across  the  grain,  in  fact  they  must  be  cut. 
A  simple  experiment  proving  this  theory  can  be  made  by 
splitting  a  board  with  a  knife  or  hatchet,  as  at  Fig.  1.  A 
reasonable  amount  of  pressure  on  the  tool  will  split  the  board 
its  full  length.  If  the  same  experiment  is  tried  in  the  edge  of 
the  board,  A-  Fig.  2,  it  will  be  found  that  the  tool  will  penetrate 
only  to  a  slight  depth  and  that  it  will  make  no  impression  on 
the  wood  beyond  the  edge  of  the  tool.  The  only  way  the  board 
can  be  cut  in  two  across  the  grain  is  to  cut  into  the  edge  at  two 
points  and  force  the  wood  between  to  crack  out,  B-  Fig.  2. 

A  cross  cut  saw  acts  on  a  board  something  like  a  series  of 
knives  operated  in  pairs.  The  teeth  are  shaped  as  at  A-Fig.  3. 
One  tooth  is  beveled  on  one  side,  the  next  tooth  on  the  opposite 
side.  This  makes  an  extreme  point  on  each  tooth,  but  one  is. 
on  one  side  of  the  saw  blade  and  the  next  is  on  the  opposite 
side.  A  saw  with  teeth  shaped  like  this,  when  drawn  over  a 
board,  does  in  one  operation  exactly  what  a  knife  might  be 
made  to  do  in  several,  i.  e.,  scores  the  wood  in  two  places  and 
chips  out  the  particles  between,  C-D  and  E-Fig.  2.  A  saw 
constructed  in  this  way  would  not,  however,  penetrate  far  into 
the  wood  until  the  blade  would  begin  to  bind.  To  overcome 
this  the  points  of  the  teeth  are  bent  outward,  first  one  to  one 


SAWS 


CROSSCUT  SAW 


Side  view 


Section  view  A-A 


RIP   SAW 


bide  view  o/ rip  saw 


Stition  v/tw  A-A 


Fig.  4 


side,  then  the  next  to  the  opposite  side.  A  saw  with  the  teeth 
so  bent  is  said  to  possess  "set."  Fig.  3  shows  several  views  of 
a  cross  cut  saw,  with  and  without  set,  also  its  action  on  wood. 
The  cut  or  crack  made  in  the  wood  by  the  saw  is  called  the  kerf. 
A  cross  cut  saw  can  also  be  made  to  cut  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  but  when  used  for  this  purpose  its  action  is  slow  and  un- 
satisfactory. 

The  teeth  of  a  rip  saw  are  somewhat  like  chisels.  They  are 
not  sharpened  to  a  bevel  on  the  edge  and  they  are  not  pointed. 
As  has  been  stated,  the  fibers  in  wood  separate  easily  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain  and  are  easily  removed  once  they  are  cut. 
Cutting  with  the  grain  requires  no  scoring.  A  chisel  pushed  into 
the  wood  as  at  A-Fig.  5,  only  cuts  across  a  group  of  fibers  but 
the  piece  in  front  of  it  is  easily  forced  out.  If  another  chisel 
were  pushed  into  the  wood  a  short  distance  behind  the  first 
and  in  line  with  it,  the  result  would  be  another  piece  of  wood 
forced  put.  The  rip  saw  works  on  this  principle,  each  tooth 
being  similar  to  a  chisel.  Like  the  cross  cut  saw,  it  would  bind 
unless  "set"  to  give  clearance.  Fig.  4,  shows  several  views  of  a 
rip  saw  with  and  without  set.  Fig.  6  shows  its  action  on  wood. 

A  rip  saw  will  not  cut  across  the  grain  because  there  are  no 
scoring  points.  B-Fig.  5  shows  how  a  chisel  acts  when  pushed 
into  the  wood  with  the  grain.  Instead  of  removing  a  particle  of 
the  wood,  it  causes  the  wood  to  split  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  and,  in  a  similar  manner,  a  saw  tooth  shaped  like  a  chisel 
forced  into  the  wood  hard  enough  would  finally  split  it  but  the 
kerf  would  be  rough  and  uneven. 

The  coarseness  of  a  saw  is  determined  by  the  number  of 
points  to  the  inch  and  is  indicated  by  the  number  stamped  on 
the  butt  of  the  saw.  There  is  always  one  more  point  per  inch 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


y  Inch 
&A 


RIP  &AW         Pig.7 


l  -^         __ 


-  -  1  Inch 
CROSSCUT  SAW 


than  there  are  teeth,  Figs.  7  and  8.  The  size  of  the  saw  is  de- 
termined by  the  length  of  the  blade  in  inches. 

Fig.  9  shows  a  hand  saw  with  the  shapes  and  names  of  the 
various  parts  indicated.  It  can  be  toothed  as  a  cross  cut  or  as 
a  rip  saw.  Its  blade  is  taper  ground,  that  is,  the  thickness  is  not 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  blade.  The  butt  and  the  blade  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  tooth  edge  are  of  equal  thickness,  but 
from  the  teeth  to  the  back  and  from  the  butt  to  the  toe,  the 
gauge  or  thickness  decreases  gradually.  Hand  saws  are  used 
for  cutting  wood  to  size  and  for  general  purposes.  A  back  saw, 
Fig.  10,  is  finer  toothed  and  the  blade  is  made  of  thinner  metal 
of  uniform  thickness,  consequently  it  is  admirably  suited  to  fine 
work.  The  metal  back  reinforces  the  blade  and  keeps  it  from 
buckling  or  bending  when  in  use.  Coping,  turning  and  compass 
saws  are  used  for  sawing  curves. 

In  using  the  hand  saw  the  wood  should  be  held  firmly  over 
a  saw  horse  with  the  knee  against  or  on  the  wood.  Fig.  11 
shows  the  starting  position  with  the  left  hand  holding  the  board 
and  at  the  same  time  guiding  the  saw.  The  first  movement 


Screws 


'Handle 


indicates 
point?  to 

£ait,  '"* 


SAWS 


should  be  a  short,  slow,  dragging  stroke  and  the  next  a  slow 
thrust,  both  without  much  pressure  or  weight  applied  to  the  saw. 
Once  the  saw  kerf  is  started  the  saw  is  guided  by  the  twist  and 
slant  given  to  the  handle  with  the  right  hand.  In  sawing  it  is 
always  held  at  about  the  angle  illustrated.  Fig.  12  shows 
method  of  holding  saw  and  work  when  finishing  cut. 

The  back  saw,  being  used  for  small  and  accurate  work,  is 
held  somewhat  differently.  The  wood  is  placed  against  a  bench 
hook  or  in  a  vise  where  it  can  be  held  firmly.  The  saw  is  guided 
by  the  left  hand  and  the  tooth  edge  near  the  toe  started  into  the 
wood  as  in  Fig.  13.  This  position  is  not  held  continually  as  with 
the  hand  saw.  It  is  only  a  starting  position.  After  the  cutting 
edge  has  entered  the  board  sufficiently  to  hold  it  in  the  wood  at 
the  far  edge,  the  other  edge  of  the  saw  is  gradually  lowered  as 
the  saw  is  moved  backward  and  forward  until  the  entire  cutting 
edge  of  the  saw  has  entered  the  top  surface  of  the  wood.  This 
slow  lowering  of  the  blade  allows  one  to  follow  the  sawing  line 
carefully.  The  saw  held  in  this  horizontal  position  is  drawn 
backward  and  forward  in  this  surface  cut  until  the  proper  depth 


.  Y  Starting  position 
— •'•*-  Last  position 


fig.  13 


Fig.14 


8 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig  15 


Fig.  17 


is  reached.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  saw  blade  is  kept 
perpendicular  during  the  entire  time  the  cut  is  being  made  so 
that  the  end  of  the  board  will  be  true. 

A  mitre  saw  is  nothing  more  than  a  large  back  saw.  As  the 
back  saw  gets  its  name  from  its  form  of  construction,  so  the 
mitre  saw  gets  its  name  from  the  use  to  which  it  is  put,  i.  e. 
making  mitres.  It  is  used  in  a  mitre  box  as  illustrated  in  Fig. 
14.  An  adjustable  feature  of  this  box  makes  possible  the  cutting 
of  any  angle  between  45°  and  90°.  A  simple  mitre  box  which 
can  be  made  and  used  with  a  back  saw  to  take  the  place  of  a 
mitre  saw  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  64,  page  24. 

A  keyhole  saw,  sometimes  called  a  compass  saw,  has  a  blade 
which  tapers  almost  to  a  point  and  is  so  shaped  for  the  purpose 
of  sawing  small  openings  and  inside  curves.  A  hole  sufficiently 
large  to  take  the  point  of  the  saw,  must  be  bored  in  the  wood 
with  an  auger  bit  before  the  saw  can  be  inserted. 

Turning  and  coping  saws  are  used  for  sawing  outside  curves 
or  those  which  can  be  entered  from  the  edge  of  the  board.  They 
may  also  be  used  for  inside  curves  provided  a  hole  is  first  bored 
in  the  wood  as  for  the  keyhole  saw.  The  blades  are  removable 
and  are  very  delicate.  They  should  be  kept  stretched  taut  when 
in  use  to  prevent  breaking.  The  turning  saw  is  held  by  the  near 
handle  with  the  right  hand  when  starting  a  cut,  with  the  left 
hand  guiding  the  blade,  Fig.  15.  Once  the  saw  is  started  into  the 
wood,  the  left  hand  is  placed  as  in  Fig.  16.  The  teeth  in  the 
blade  should  point  toward  the  workman  so  that  the  cutting  takes 
place  while  the  saw  is  being  pulled  rather  than  pushed.  The 
coping  saw  is  used  mostly  on  wood  that  is  too  thin  to  be  held 
in  the  vise  and  sawed  with  the  turning  saw.  The  best  results  can 
be  obtained  if  the  wood  is  held  over  a  saw  block  as  in  Fig.  17. 
The  teeth  of  the  saw  should  point  toward  the  handle  and  the 
blade  should  be  held  perpendicular  at  all  times  to  insure  the 
making  of  a  square  edge. 


PLANES 


.  16 


Cutting  cylinder 

corrupted  roll 


Cross  Section  of  Planer 


Fig.  19 


PLANES. 

Sawed  lumber  is  rough  on  the  surface.  Before  it  can  be  used 
in  cabinet  work  or  for  anything  requiring  a  finish  it  must  be 
smoothed.  Usually  this  is  done  on  a  surfacer  or  planer,  Figs. 
18  and  19.  A  set  of  corrugated  rolls  pull  the  board  through  the 
machine  while  a  revolving  cylinder  in  which  a  set  of  knives  is 
imbedded,  cuts  away  the  outer  part,  leaving  the  board  fairly 
smooth.  The  board  is  then  turned  over  and  the  other  side 
planed. 

While  to  all  appearances  the  surface  is  smooth,  on  close 
examination  it  will  be  found  to  be  ribbed  across  the  grain,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  knives  on  the  surfacer  gouge  out  pieces  of 
the  surface  instead  of  splitting  off  shavings.  If  an  extremely 
smooth  surface  is  desired,  a  smoothing  plane,  Fig.  20  is  used. 
The  cutting  blade  in  this  plane  is  pushed  along  over  the  surface 
of  the  board,  splitting  the  fibers  apart  and  leaving  a  very  smooth 
surface.  A,  B  and  C,  Fig.  22,  show  highly  magnified  drawings 
of  a  board,  first  as  it  comes  from  the  planer,  and  then  from  the 
smoothing  plane. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  planes.  Those  used  for  smooth- 
ing flat  surfaces  are  known  as  smoothing,  jack  and  jointer  planes. 
A  smoothing  plane  is  used  to  produce  exceptionally  smooth 


20 


Knob 


10 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


surfaces.  A  jack  plane  is  of  the  same  shape  and  construction 
but  slightly  larger  and  the  cutting  blade  is  sharpened  differently. 
Because  of  this,  work  can  be  speedily  roughed  out  with  it.  It  is 
never  used  for  smoothing  work  unless  the  blade  is  sharpened 
as  in  a  smoothing  plane.  A  jointer  plane  is  like  smoothing  and 
jack  planes  except  that  it  is  very  much  longer.  The  cutting 
blade  is  sharpened  like  that  9f  a  smoothing  plane.  Because  of 
the  extreme  length  of  the  plane  bottom  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
very  true  edge  which  can  be  jointed  to  another  board,  hence  the 
name  jointer.  Because  of  its  size  it  is  never  used  on  broad  sur- 
face work.  Fig.  23  shows  the  comparative  sizes  of  these  planes. 

Block  planes,  Fig.  25,  are  used  for  planing  end  grain  only. 
The  angle  of  the  cutting  blade  is  lower  than  that  in  the  other 
planes  because  of  the  different  nature  of  the  work  required  of  it. 
A  spoke  shave,  Fig.  25,  is  a  kind  of  plane  having  handles  on  the 
sides.  The  shortness  of  the  bottom  makes  possible  its  use  in 
smoothing  curved  surfaces.  Rabbet  planes,  plow  planes  and 
router  planes  are  used  respectively  for  cutting  rabbets,  plowing 
grooves  and  routing  out  dadoes. 

There  are  three  styles  of  planes  used  in  smoothing  flat  sur- 
faces, wooden,  wooden  bottom  and  iron,  Fig.  26.  In  the  wooden 
plane  the  cutting  iron  is  held  in  place  by  a  wedge  of  wood.  In 


•Jack 


Jointer- 


"Plane.    Irons 


Srnoot/i 

Rg24 


PLANES 


11 


Fig. 


B/och  Plane 


Shave 


Fig.  26 


Wooden  Plane. 


Wooden  Bottom  Plant 


Iron  Plane. 


the  wooden  and  iron  bottom  planes  an  adjusting  nut  and  lever 
regulate  the  depth  and  squareness  of  the  cut.  The  cutting  iron 
in  a  smoothing  plane  is  always  sharpened  straight  and  square 
to  the  sides  while  the  cutting  edge  of  the  jack  plane  iron  is 
slightly  curved,  Fig.  24.  See  section  on  "Grinding  and  Whetting 
Tools"  for  correct  shape  and  bevel  of  cutting  irons.  The  distance 
the  cutting  iron  projects  below  the  bottom  of  the  plane  is  con- 
trolled by  the  adjusting  nut.  To  adjust  the  plane,  the  plane  iron 
and  plane  iron  cap  should  be  assembled  as  in  A-Fig.  21  and 
placed  in  position  in  the  bed  of  the  plane  and  the  lever  cap 
clamped  down.  The  plane  should  then  be  held  bottom  side  up, 
the  toe  toward  the  workman  and  the  heel  toward  the  window  or 
light,  Fig.  27.  Sighting  along  the  bottom,  one  can  see  the.  plane 
iron  projecting.  By  manipulating  the  adjusting  nut  and  lever, 
the  proper  adjustment  can  be  made.  The  plane  iron  cap,  some- 
times called  the  breaker  cap  because  it  breaks  the  angle  of  -the 
shavings  when  they  are  cut  off  the  board,  causing  them  to  curl 
upward  and  out  of  the  plane,  should  be  screwed  securely  to  the 
plane  iron.  In  assembling  the  plane  iron  and  cap  the  lower  edge 
of  the  latter  should  be  set  back  of  the  cutting  edge  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  If  set  closer  than  this  the  throat  of  the  plane 
will  become  clogged  with  shavings:  if  farther  away  it  will  not 
make  the  shavings  roll  out. 


12 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.  31 


Fig.  3  3 


In  planing  one  should  start  at  the  near  end  of  the  board,  A- 
Fig.  28.  A  maximum  amount  of  pressure  should  be  applied  to 
the  knob  and  toe  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  and  as  the  plane 
is  pushed  along  the  board  an  equal  amount  of  pressure  is  ap- 
plied to  all  parts  of  the  plane.  As  the  plane  nears  the  end  of  the 
board,  greater  pressure  is  applied  to  the  handle  and  heel,  B- 
Fig.  30.  The  plane  can  be  pushed  along  the  board  more  easily 
if  turned  at  a  slight  angle,  but  never  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
entire  bottom  of  the  plane  does  not  rest  on  the  board.  When 
planing  edges  the  thumb  and  first  finger  are  held  on  the  plane 
while  the  other  fingers  act  as  a  guide.  After  a  little  experience 
in  planing  one  can  tell  by  the  feeling  of  the  fingers  whether  or 
not  the  edge  is  being  planed  square  to  the  broad  face.  Fig.  31 
shows  the  manner  of  holding  the  plane  when  planing  a  broad 
face.  Fig.  32  illustrates  the  way  of  holding  the  spokeshave 
when  smoothing  a  curved  edge. 

When  cutting  a  chamfer  across  the  grain  it  is  necessary  to 
hold  the  plane  at  a  slant  as  at  A- Fig.  33,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  far  edge  of  the  board  from  splitting,  while  in  cutting  a  cham- 
fer with  the  grain,  the  plane  is  held  as  at  B-Fig.  33. 


CHISELS 


13 


Tang  Socket 

Firmer  Framing 

Chisel  Chisel 


Fig.  34 


5ocAet 
Gouge 


Mining 
Too/ 


^ 

Outside 
bevd 


CHISELS. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  chisels  known  as  firmer  and 
framing,  Fig.  34.  They  are  very  similar  in  construction  and  each 
has  a  straight  cutting  edge.  Their  chief  difference  is  that  one  is 
heavier  and  stronger  than  the  other.  Either  of  these  chisels  can 
be  secured  in  the  tang  or  socket  style.  In  the  tang  chisel  the 
metal  part  extends  up  into  the  wooden  handle.  In  the  socket 
chisel  the  wooden  handle  fits  into  a  socket  in  the  metal  part. 
The  blades  of  each  can  be  secured  either  plain  or  with  the  side 
edges  beveled.  Lignt  firmer  chisels  are  called  paring  chisels. 
Extremely  thick  -bladed  but  narrow  framing  chisels  are  called 
mortise  chisels.  Both  kinds  of  chisels  come  in  varying  widths 
from  *A"  to  2". 

Gouges  are,  in  reality,  chisels  having  a  curved  cutting  edge. 
They  can  be  secured  in  either  the  tang-  or  socket  style.  They 
also  come  in  widths  varying  from  y%'  to  2"  and  in  different 
sweeps  or  curves.  The  bevel  of  a  gouge  is  sometimes  on  the 
outside  and  sometimes  on  the  inside. 

The  gouge  is  used  for  cutting  out  depressions  where  the 
inner  edge  of  the  depression  is  to  be  round.  Of  the  two  kinds 
the  outside  ground  gouge  is  the  more  useful  for  general  pur- 
poses. However,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an  inside  ground  gouge 


14 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.  35 


Bg.36 


if  straight  sided  holes  of  any  great  depth  are  to  be  made.  The 
gouge  is  held  in  ways  similar  to  those  described  for  chiseling. 

Veining  tools  are  extremely  small,  outside  beveled  gouges. 
They  are  used  for  gouging  out  or  veining  outlines  around  a  de- 
sign on  wood.  They  can  be  secured  either  V  shape  or  U  shape. 

Extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  cut  exactly  with  the  line 
when  "veining"  around  a  design.  The  straight  edge  of  the  try 
square  or  framing  square  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  con- 
trolling straight  line  cuts,  it  being  held  so  that  the  straight  edge 
follows  the  line  and  the  veining  tool  operated  against  it. 

In  using  a  chisel  the  first  essential  thing  is  to  see  that  it  is 
sharp.  (See  section  on  "Grinding  and  Whetting  Tools.")  If  used 
properly  it  will  retain  its  edge  for  a  long  time  but  if  it  is  abused 
it  will  be  necessary  to  resharpen  it  continually.  In  using  either 
the  chisel  or  gouge  the  blade  back  of  the  cutting  edge  is  held 
with  the  left  hand,  thus  guiding  and  controlling  the  cutting  edge, 
while  the  power  is  applied  with  the  right  hand.  When  the  pres- 
sure is  applied  to  the  handle,  forcing  the  blade  through  the  wood, 
the  blade  should  be  given  a  slight  sidewise,  paring  stroke.  This 
will  produce  a  smoother  cut  and  less  pressure  will  be  required 
for  operating  the  tool.  For  heavy  work  the  blade  is  grasped  with 
the  entire  hand  while  for  light  work  the  blade  is  held  only  be- 
tween the  first  two  fingers  and  thumb.  If  a  considerable  amount 
of  wood  is  to  be  removed  with  the  chisel,  large  cuts  may  be 
taken  at  first  but  as  the  limit  of  the  depression  is  neared,  very 
thin  cuts,  in  fact  shavings  should  be  made  to  insure  a  smooth, 
true  surface.  The  chisel  blade  acts  on  the  wood  precisely  as 
does  the  plane  bit.  In  the  plane  the  bottom  keeps  the  cutting 
edge  from  going  too  deeply  into  the  wood,  while  with  the  chisel 
the  left  hand  must  regulate  the  cut.  Fig.  35  shows  the  method 


KNIVES 


15 


Fig.  37 


Fig.36 


of  holding  the  chisel  while  making  a  verticle  cut  and  Fig.  36 
illustrates  the  method  of  paring  and  rounding  a  corner. 

In  case  of  very  heavy  work  or  extremely  hard  wood,  the 
mallet  may  be  used  to  give  additional  power  to  the  stroke,  the 
left  hand  being  used  as  before  mentioned,  in  controlling  or  guid- 
ing the  direction  of  the  cut.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  muti- 
late the  end  of  the  chisel  or  gouge  handle  when  pounding  it.  If 
any  great  amount  of  heavy  chiseling  is  to  be  undertaken  a  handle 
having  a  leather  tip  or  an  iron  ferrule  is  better  than  the  plain 
wood  handle.  A  mallet  should  never  be  used  if  enough  power 
can  be  supplied  with  the  hand  by  pushing,  even  if  the  chips 
removed  are  much  smaller. 

In  chiseling  mortises  (see  page  on  joints)  the  bulk  of  the 
wood  may  be  removed  to  the  proper  depth  with  an  auger  bit  and 
then  the  sides  and  ends  pared  up  with  the  paring  chisel.  In 
making  a  tenon  the  chisel  is  held  bevel  side  up  as  at  Fig.  37  and 
the  wood  removed  down  to  the  gauge  line.  In  cutting  dadoes, 
Fig.  38,  or  tenons,  the  chisel  should  never  be  pushed  all  the 
tvay  across  the  board,  because  it  will  split  out  as  when  planing 
across  grain.  The  cutting  should  be  done  from  each  edge 
toward  the  center,  to  a  point  slightly  beyond  the  center. 

KNIVES. 

The  knife  differs  from  a  chisel  in  that  its  cutting  edge  is 
along  the  side  of  the  blade  instead  of  the  end.  The  sloyd  knife 
and  the  pocket  knife  are  sharpened  with  both  sides  of  the  blade 
sloping  to  the  cutting  edge  instead  of  being  beveled  on  one  side 
as  on  the  chisel,  but  the  blade  of  a  draw  knife  is  beveled  on  one 
side  and  flat  on  the  other,  Fig.  39.  While  sloyd  or  pocket  knives 
are  primarily  used  for  whittling  wood,  they  are  indispensible 


16 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


T'ocAef  Knife 

Fig.  39 


.Handle 


Ming/ing  Hatchet 


Adze 


Fig.40 


tools  in  laying  out  work,  the  points  being  used  to  score  lines. 
The  blade  of  the  sloyd  knife  is  stationary  and  it  is  thicker  and 
more  pointed  than  the  blade  of  a  pocket  knife. 

The  draw  knife  is  composed  of  a  long  blade  with  a  handle 
on  each  end.  It  is  a  valuable  tool  for  removing  waste  wood 
when  there  is  hardly  enough  to  remove  with  the  saw  but  too 
much  to  plane  away.  Its  cutting  edge  acts  like  the  cutting  edge 
of  a  plane  but  it  is  pulled  through  the  wood  instead  of  being 
pushed.  It  is  a  dangerous  tool  to  manipulate  and  unusual  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  in  using  it.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to 
split  the  wood  rather  than  to  cut  it. 

CHOPPING  TOOLS 

There  are  three  kinds  of  chopping  tools,  Fig.  40,  the  axe, 
the  hatchet  and  the  adze.  While  the  shape  of  the  axe  is  slightly 
different  from  that  of  the  hatchet,  the  cutting  edges  are  alike, 
being  beveled  from  both  sides  like  the  knife.  An  axe  is  heavier 
than  a  hatchet  and  has  a  long  handle  so  shaped  and  curved  as 
to  secure  ease  in  holding  it  and  to  make  possible  the  delivery  of 
a  more  powerful  stroke  when  the  tool  is  used.  There  is  great 
variety  of  design  in  both  axes  and  hatchets. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  hatchets  known  as  shingling  hatchets 
and  half  hatchets.  Each  has  a  nick  in  one  side  of  the  bit  for 
pulling  nails.  Each  also  has  a  head  for  driving  nails.  The  axe 
is  used  for  felling  trees,  splitting  fire  wood,  and  for  heavy  chop- 
ping and  the  hatchet  for  light  chopping. 

The  adze,  is  about  the  size  of  an  axe  but  its  cutting  edge  is 
at  right  angles  to  the  handle  instead  of  in  the  same  direction,  like 
the  axe.  The  adze  is  used  chiefly  to  square  up  timbers. 


LAYING  OUT  TOOLS 


17 


^ge 


LAYING  OUT  TOOLS 

Laying  out  tools  are  used  for  determining  sizes  and  setting 
off  lines  or  shapes.  The  rule  or  scale,  A-Fig.  41,  is  used  for  de- 
termining size.  Some  tools  have  the  scale  of  measurement  on 
some  part  of  the  tool  so  that  the  operation  of  measuring  can  be 
performed  at  the  same  time  the  lines  are  set  off.  The  try  square, 
B-Fig.  41,  is  a  tool  used  on  narrow  stock  for  setting  off  lines  at 
right  angles  (90°)  to  a  straight  edge  and  also  for  testing  the  face 
thus  made  to  see  if  it  is  true  and  square  to  the  other  faces.  The 
blade  is  graduated  in  the  same  manner  as  a  rule.  In  testing  or 
laying  out  with  the  try  square,  the  head  of  it  must  always  be 
held  rigidly  against  a  square  or  true  surface.  The  framing 
square,  C-Fig.  41,  is  similar  to  the  try  square  and  is  used  for  the 
same  purpose  on  larger  work.  Instead  of  having  a  handle  and 
blade  like  the  try  square,  it  is  composed  of  two  blades,  each  be- 
ing graduated  in  the  same  manner  as  a  rule.  Being  much  larger 
than  a  try  square,  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  laying  out 
and  testing  frame  work,  hence  the  name  framing  square. 

The  marking  gauge,  D-Fig.  41,  consists  of  a  beam  and  a 
movable  head.  Imbedded  in  one  end  of  the  beam  is  a  sharp 
steel  scoring  point.  The  beam  in  some  gauges  is  graduated  like 
a  rule.  The  gauge  is  used  to  lay  out  widths  up  to  six  inches. 
The  scoring  point  is  sometimes  sharpened  to  a  point  and  it  is 
sometimes  wedge  shape.  If  properly  adjusted,  Fig.  43,  the 
wedge  shape  works  more  easily  and  produces  the  best  results 
because  the  shape  helps  to  hold  the  scoring  point  in  the  wood. 
To  set  the  gauge,  the  set  screw  in  the  head  is  released,  the  head 
slid  along  the  beam  until  the  face  nearest  the  scoring  point  is 
over  the  desired  mark  on  the  beam,  then  the  set  screw  tightened. 
On  an  old  gauge  this  tightening  of  the  set  screw  often  allows  the 


18 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


'    Side 
/ 


bottom 


Fig.  44 


head  of  the  gauge  to  slip.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  test  the 
adjustment  with  the  rule  after  the  screw  has  been  tightened  as 
in  Fig.  42,  in  order  to  insure  accurate  work.  After  the  gauge  is 
properly  set  it  is  placed  with  the  head  against  the  straight  edge 
from  which  the  line  is  to  be  gauged  and  the  tool  pushed  along 
the  board  and  at  the  same  time  against  this  straight  edge,  Fig. 
44.  The  beam  should  be  slightly  tilted  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  gauge  is  being  pushed  so  that  the  scoring  point  is  dragged 
along  the  wood,  otherwise  it  will  tear  the  wood.  It  will  also 
have  a  tendency  to  follow  the  grain  in  the  wood  instead  of  cut- 
ting a  line  parallel  to  the  edge,  if  the  point  is  held  erect. 

Dividers,  E-Fig.  41,  look  something  like  a  compass.  They 
are  used  for  scoring  circular  lines,  for  stepping  off  duplicate 
dimensions  and  for  scoring  lines  parallel  to  curved  or  irregular 
shaped  surfaces.  The  dividers  are  adjusted  by  loosening  the  set 
screw,  which  allows  the  wing  to  slide  freely  in  the  slot  in  the 
arm  of  the  dividers,  until  the  points  are  the  desired  distance 
apart.  This  distance  may  be  gauged  by  holding  the  points  over 
a  rule  as  in  setting  a  compass.  Once  this  distance  is  regulated, 
the  set  screw  is  tightened.  When  testing  the  distance  between 
the  points  of  the  dividers,  if  it  is  found  that  only  a  slight  inac- 
curacy exists,  instead  of  adjusting  with  the  set  screw  this  can  be 


Tig.  45 


Fig.  46 


LAYING  OUT  TOOLS 


19 


Fig  47 


Mark 


Fig.  46 


corrected  by  tightening  or  loosening  the  adjusting  nut  on  the 
end  of  the  wing.  Circular  lines  are  made  by  using  the  dividers 
as  a  compass  is  used.  Duplicate  dimensions  are  set  off  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  45.  A  line  parallel  to  a  surface  of  irregular  shape 
can  be  gauged  by  holding  the  dividers  as  in  Fig.  46  and  dragging 
them  along,  making  one  point  follow  the  shape  being  paralleled 
while  the  other  scores  the  desired  line. 

The  sliding  T  bevel,  F-Fig.  41,  is  similar  to  a  try  square 
excepting  that  the  blade  in  a  T  bevel  is  adjustable,  making  pos- 
sible the  setting  of  the  blade  to  any  angle.  In  adjusting  a  T 
bevel  the  set  screw  is  loosened  and  the  blade  slid  up  and  down 
until  the  desired  angle  is  reached.  This  angle  may  be  deter- 
mined by  placing  the  T  bevel  over  a  piece  of  work  having  a 
bevel  to  be  duplicated,  Fig.  47,  fitting  the  blade  down  tightly 
and  tightening  the  set  screw.  If  the  angle  of  the  bevel  is  to  be 
determined  by  measurement  instead  of  taken  from  a  pattern,  the 
T  bevel  is  placed  over  the  framing  square  as  shown  in  Fig.  48, 
and  the  blade  is  moved  around  until  its  edge  touches  the  desired 
figures  on  the  blades  of  the  framing  square.  If  the  T  bevel  blade 
touches  like  marks  on  each  blade  of  the  square,  the  angle  will 
be  45°. 


Fig.  49 


Fig.  50 


20 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Expanse 


WOOD  BORING  TOOLS 

Round  holes  can  be  made  in  wood  in  several  ways;  with  a 
brad  awl,  a  gimlet  bit,  a  twist  drill,  an  auger  bit,  an  expansive 
bit  or  a  Forstner  bit,  Fig.  51,  or  by  sawing  with  a  coping  saw, 
turning  saw  or  keyhole  saw.  See  section  on  "Saws."  The 
range  of  sizes  of  holes  which  can  be  made  by  these  tools  is  given 
in  the  accompanying  chart. 


Graduations 


wire   gauge  numbers. 
32nds. 
32nds. 
16ths. 

adjustable    screws    and    cutters    of 
different  sizes. 
16ths. 
up  to  8". 

..any  size  inside  the  limit  of  the  wood,  with- 
in range  of  the  saw  frame. 
to. .  .  .limited  only  by  the  size  of  the  wood  being 
sawed. 


Minimum 
Kind  of  Tool         Size 
Brad  Awls           0 

] 

to. 
to. 
to. 
to. 
to. 
to. 
to. 

to. 
to. 
to. 

VTaximum 
Size 

•  -W  by 
No.  1  by 
"3A"  by 
..    1"  by 
..  2"  by 
.  .   5"  by 
dif 
.\1A"  by 
.  .any  siz 
.  .any  siz 

Gimlet   Bits  ... 

i  // 

Twist  Drills.... 

.No.  80 

Expansive  Bits 

I" 
V 

Forstner   Bits.. 
Coping  Saws.  .  . 
Turning   Saws.. 

....54;; 

Keyhole  Saws 


The  brad  awl  is  shaped  much  like  a  nail  and  acts  on  wood  in 
a  similar  way.  It  only  separates  but  does  not  cut  the  fibers.  It 
can  be  used  only  in  soft  wood  and  unless  handled  carefully  will 
split  the  wood.  The  hole  is  made  by  twisting  the  awl  back  and 
forth  and  at  the  same  time  pushing  the  point  into  the  wood, 
Fig.  52. 

All  bits  with  square  shanks  are  held  in  a  brace,  Fig.  54,  and 
turned  clockwise  in  boring  a  hole.  Much  care  should  be  taken  in 


WOOD  BORING  TOOLS 


21 


Head 


placing  a  bit  in  the  brace  to  see  that  the  shank  is  held  rigidly  in 
the  jaws  of  the  chuck.  Otherwise  the  bit  will  not  bore  straight. 
A  bit  is  inserted  by  gripping  the  chuck  firmly  with  the  left  hand 
and  turning  the  handle  backward.  This  will  open  the  jaws  of 
the  chuck  and  permit  the  bit  to  be  inserted.  Reversing  these 
processes  fastens  the  bit  in  the  chuck. 

Small  twist  drill  bits  have  round  shanks  and  are  held  in  a 
hand  drill,  Fig.  53.  They  are  twisted  in  or  out  of  the  wood  much 
faster  than  is  possible  with  a  brace,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  bevel 
gears  multiply  the  speed,  one  revolution  of  the  handle  turning 
the  bit  four  or  five  times.  Hand  drills  will  hold  twist  drill  bits 
from  YA"  in  size  down  to  those  as  small  as  a  needle,  but  one  sel- 
dom uses  in  wood  such  small  bits  as  the  latter.  The  drill  bits 
are  placed  in  the  chuck  of  the  hand  drill  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  larger  bits  are  placed  in  the  brace. 

The  gimlet  bit  makes  only  a  fairly  smooth  sided  hole.  The 
shape  of  the  point  helps  to  pull  it  into  the  wood.  The  cutting 
edge  cuts  the  wood  fiber  and  the  channel  removes  the  shavings. 
The  twist  drill  requires  the  application  of  more  pressure  when 
boring  because  its  point  does  not  aid  in  pulling  it  into  the  wood. 
The  auger  bit  is  especially  designed  for  cutting  a  smooth  sided 
hole ;  the  point  centers  the  bit  and  pulls  it  into  the  wood,  the 
spurs  score  the  wood,  or  in  other  words,  cut  the  shape  of  the 
hole,  the  lips  cut  the  wood  loose  and  force  it  up  the  hollow  in 
the  twisted  channel.  If  the  hole  is  bored  only  part  way  through 
a  board,  the  bottom  of  the  hole  retains  the  shape  of  the  bit,  as  at 
A-Fig.  55.  The  expansive  bit  works  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
auger  bit  but  it  may  be  adjusted  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it 
possible  to  bore  holes  of  different  sizes  with  the  same  bit.  A 
Forstner  bit  cuts  a  clean,  straight  sided  hole  with  a  flat  bottom 


22 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.  55 


B 


Rg.56 


as  at  B-Fig.  55.  The  Forstner  bit  requires  the  application  of 
much  greater  pressure  than  bits  having  a  threaded  centering 
point. 

The  countersink  is  not  designed  to  cut  holes  all  the  way 
through  the  wood.  Its  purpose  is  to  ream  out  a  hole  made  by 
a  gimlet  bit  or  twist  drill,  so  that  the  head  of  a  flat  head  screw 
will  sink  even  with  the  face  of  the  board.  Fig.  56  shows  the 
method  of  countersinking  and  testing  the  hole  for  size. 

When  wood  is  being  bored  it  should  be  held  rigidly  in  a  vise 
and  the  angle  of  the  bit  in  relation  to  the  wood  carefully  deter- 
mined and  kept  while  the  hole  is  being  made.  The  wood  may  be 
so  placed  that  the  brace  is  held  vertical  as  in  Fig.  57,  or  horizon- 
tal as  in  Fig.  58.  It  is  sometimes  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  ac- 
curacy, to  have  one  person  operating  the  brace  and  bit  and  an- 
other person  sighting  to  see  that  the  brace  is  being  held  at  the 
proper  angle. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  exactly  when  to  stop  boring  in  order 
to  make  a  hole  of  a  certain  depth.  Experience  and  practice  will 
aid  one  in  judging  the  amount  of  pressure  and  the  number  of 
turns  necessary  to  produce  certain  results  but  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  bit  occasionally  and  test,  with  a  small  stick, 
the  depth  of  the  hole.  When  more  than  one  hole  of  a  certain 


fig.57 


Fig.  56 


HOLDING  TOOLS 


23 


Saw  Horse. 


Top 


Toolwe// 


Too/racA 


Tailvkt 


Frame 


Work  Bench 


Fig.60 


size  is  to  be  bored  to  the  same  depth,  time  is  saved  in  testing 
by  keeping  an  accurate  count  in  the  first  hole  of  the  number  of 
turns  the  brace  makes  after  the  bit  begins  to  cut.  Succeeding 
holes  can  be  made  without  testing  by  counting  the  same  number 
of  turns  provided  an  equal  amount  of  pressure  is  applied  in  each 
case.  See  section  on  "Jigs  and  Tricks"  for  devices  for  gauging 
and  regulating  holes  made  with  a  bit. 

HOLDING  TOOLS 

Tools  and  devices  for  holding  materials  while  working  on 
them  are  just  as  important  as  the  tools  with  which  the  actual 
work  is  done.  The  saw  horse  is  a  device  for  holding  wood  when 
laying  out  or  sawing  it.  Fig.  59  shows  a  convenient  saw  horse 
having  an  open  top.  This  style  is  well  suited  for  use  when  rip- 
ping small  boards  or  for  cutting  off  stock.  The  brackets  on  the 
sides  form  a  convenient  place  for  keeping  a  cross  cut  saw  and 
a  rip  saw  within  easy  reach.  A  saw  horse  can  be  made  any  size 
to  suit  one's  needs. 

The  work  bench  should  have  a  vise  on  it  for  holding  the 
wood  when  working  upon  it.  Some  benches  are  equipped  with 
two  vises,  one  on  the  front  edge  called  the  front  vise,  the  other  at 
the  right  end  called  the  tail  vise.  One  can  get  along  very  well 
with  one  vise  provided  it  is  near  the  left  end  on  the  front  edge  of 


Rg-61        3e/7c/r 


Shu/der 


Hand 
Screw 


24  WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Fig.  63 


Rg.64 


the  bench.  There  are  many  styles  and  designs  of  vises  but  they 
can  be  grouped  under  two  general  types,  one  known  as  the  con- 
tinuous screw  and  the  other  as  rapid  acting.  In  the  continuous 
screw,  the  only  way  to  open  or  close  the  vise  is  to  screw  or  un- 
screw it  with  the  handle  while  in  the  rapid  acting  vise  the 
front  jaw  may  be  opened  or  closed  most  of  the  way  by  simply 
sliding  it. 

A  bench  hook,  A-Fig.  61,  is  a  very  convenient  tool  and  it 
can  be  made  in  the  shop.  Small  pieces  of  wood  are  held  against 
it  when  being  sawed  or  chiseled.  It  may  be  hooked  over  the 
edge  of  the  bench  or  the  lower  block  may  be  fastened  in  the  vise. 
Fig.  10  in  the  section  on  "Mechanical  Drawing"  gives  the  work- 
ing details  of  a  good  bench  hook.  The  block  on  one  side  is  shown 
placed  to  the  right,  on  the  other  side  to  the  left,  so  that  it  can 
be  used  for  either  a,  right  or  left  handed  workman.  Bench  hooks 
are  usually  put  together  with  dowel  rods  and  glue  so  that  if  the 
saw  or  chisel  cuts  into  the  block,  the  edge  will  not  be  dulled. 
In  the  absence  of  dowel  rods  the  bench  hook  may  be  nailed  or 
screwed  together. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  bench  stops,  B  and  C-Fig.  61.  One 
is  made  with  a  block  which  fits  in  a  vise  and  holds  a  thin  board 
out  over  the  bench  so  that  wood  can  be  pushed  against  it  when 
planing.  The  other  is  made  to  fit  a  square  hole  in  the  top  of 
the  bench.  A  cross  peg  in  this  latter  kind  of  stop  keeps  it  from 
falling  all  the  way  through  the  hole.  This  kind  of  stop  is  used 
when  work  is  to  be  clamped  between  the  vise  and  the  stop. 

Hand  screws  and  carriage  clamps,  Fig.  62,  are  used  to  hold 
pieces  of  'wood  together  when  gluing  or  nailing  them.  Hand 
screws  are  sometimes  used  for  holding  wood  at  an  irregular 
angle  in  the  vise  while  planing,  boring  or  chiseling  it,  Fig.  2, 


HOLDING  TOOLS 


25 


Fig.  65 


ferrule     ,***»"• 


/  c 

Nail  oer 


Adju^ng 

rf^  Monkey  Wrench 


Strew  Driver  Bit 


page  157.  The  jaws  of  the  hand  screw  should  always  be  kept  as 
near  parallel  as  possible  because  otherwise  a  strain  is  produced 
on  the  screws,  which  will  break  them.  It  is  always  best  to  begin 
the  tightening  with  the  middle  screw  and  then  complete  it  with 
the  end  screw. 

Cabinet  clamps,  Fig.  63,  are  used  on  large  work  for  the  same 
purpose  as  hand  screws,  i.  e.  clamping  boards  together  while  the 
glue  sets  or  while  nails  or  screws  are  driven  in. 

A  mitre  box  is  a  device  for  holding  wood  while  it  is  being 
sawed  at  a  determined  angle.  A  simple  mitre  box  for  cutting 
right  angles  and  45°  angles  can  be  made  as  at  Fig.  64.  It  is  very 
necessary  that  the  saw  used  in  the  mitre  box  have  a  blade  of 
equal  thickness  at  all  points.  For  this  reason  a  back  saw  is  used. 
This  kind  of  a  saw  also  produces  much  more  accurate  work  be- 
cause the  blade  is  thin  and  the  teeth  fine.  By.  properly  placing 
angle  irons  on  the  box  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  metal  back 
of  the  saw  can  be  made  to  ride,  thus  keeping  the  cutting  edge 
from  sawing  all  the  way  through  and  spoiling  the  box.  These 
angle  irons  should  be  separated  just  far  enough  to  give  clearance 
to  the  saw  blade  without  side  play,  if  accurate  work  is  to  be 
expected  of  it.  The  saw  must  be  slid  into  the  slots  or  kerf  from 
the  side.  Forcing  it  in  from  the  top  would  dull  the  teeth  of  the 
saw  and  spring  the  mitre  box.  Mitre  boxes  having  an  adjust- 
ment for  holding  the  saw  at  any  angle,  can  be  purchased,  but 
for  ordinary  purposes  the  home-made  box  will  be  found  to  be 
satisfactory. 


26 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


rig.  66 


Fig.  67 


DRIVING  TOOLS 

Driving  tools,  Fig.  65,  group  themselves  into  two  classes 
because  of  the  manner  in  which  they  drive.  The  hammer  and 
mallet  belong  to  that  class  which  produces  driving  power  by  in- 
termittent pounding  strokes.  The  nail  set,  while  it  does  not 
produce  driving  power  in  this  way,  transmits  power  produced  by 
the  hammer  and  therefore  belongs  to  this  class.  The  screw 
driver  and  wrench  belong  to  the  other  class  in  which  the  driving 
power  is  produced  by  continuous  twisting  pressure.  This  power 
applied  to  screws  and  bolts  forces  them  into  the  wood  if  turned 
clockwise,  or  out  of  the  wood  if  the  direction  is  reversed. 

Hammers  designed  for  pulling  as  well  as  driving  nails  are 
called  claw  hammers.  There  are  two  kinds,  plain  eye  and  adze 
eye.  Of  the  two  the  adze  eye  is  the  better  because  the  part  of 
the  handle  which  is  inside  the  hammer  head  is  longer.  This 
makes  it  more  secure.  The  head  of  the  hammer  stays  on  better 
and  the  handle  is  not  so  apt  to  break.  In  the  best  hammers  the 
head  is  made  of  forged  steel  and  the  handle  of  hickory.  The 
shape  of  each  part  has  been  carefully  designed  to  perform  easily 
its  portion  of  the  work.  The  face,  that  part  used  for  pounding, 
is  sometimes  flat  and  sometimes  convexly  curved.  When  curved 
the  hammer  is  said  to  be  bell  faced.  The  claw,  that  part  used  for 
pulling  nails,  is  tapered,  curved,  and  of  the  proper  pitch  and 
shape  to  pull  nails  easily.  The  handle,  while  curved,  is  not  ex- 
actly the  same  shape  at  any  two  places.  It  is  full  near  the  end 
to  furnish  an  easy  grip  for  the  hand.  It  is  smaller  near  the 
hammer  head.  The  eye  in  the  head  of  the  hammer  is  largest 
near  the  outside  thus  allowing  that  part  of  the  handle  extending 
into  the  eye  to  be  securely  fastened  with  a  wedge  driven  into 
the  end  of  it. 


DRIVING  TOOLS 


27 


Fig.  69 


»  Fig.  70 


When  using  the  hammer  for  driving  or  pounding,  the  handle 
should  be  gripped  firmly  near  the  end  farthest  away  from  the 
head,  Figs.  66  and  67.  The  hammer  face  should  be  placed  over 
the  nail  or  place  to  be  pounded,  in  order  to  gauge  the  distance, 
and  then  the  hammer  head  lifted  to  a  point  somewhat  removed 
from  the  object  to  be  struck,  with  a  motion  partly  of  the  wrist 
and  partly  of  the  arm.  The  return  blow  is  struck  with  a  quick, 
snappy  stroke,  again  largely  a  wrist  movement,  never  a  pushing 
stroke. 

The  claws  are  so  designed  that  when  they  are  slipped  under 
the  head  of  a  nail  as  in  Fig.  68  and  pressure  applied  to  the  handle, 
the  leverage  forces  the  nail  out  of  the  wood  a  certain  distance. 
If  one  tries  to  force  the  nail  farther  than  the  hammer  naturally 
pulls  it,  he  will  only  succeed  in  bending  the  nail,  Fig.  69.  On  the 
other  hand  if,  after  this  first  operation,  a  small  block  of  wood  is 
placed  under  the  head  of  the  hammer,  Fig.  70,  and  pressure 
again  applied  to  the  handle,  the  pull  on  the  nail  is  a  straight  up- 
ward one  and  the  nail  may  be  easily  drawn  out. 

Mallets  are  made  of  hard,  tough  wood  and  usually  have  a 
cylindrical  head  and  flat  faces.  When  the  handle  is  put  in,  the 
hand  end,  which  is  smaller  than  the  other,  is  inserted  through 
the  tapering  eye  in  the  mallet  and  the  full  length  of  the  handle 
drawn  through  it.  Thus  the  large  end  remains  in  the  mallet 
head  and  forces  it  to  a  tight  fit  when  the  mallet  is  being  used 
instead  of  allowing  the  head  to  fly  off.  The  mallet  is  especially 
useful  in  producing  power  for  chiseling  and  gouging  because  the 
pounding  face  is  broader  than  that  of  the  hammer.  The  wooden 
handle  of  a  chisel  or  gouge  will  not  be  so  badly  battered  up  if 
pounded  with  a  wooden  faced  tool  like  the  mallet  instead  of  with 
a  metal  faced  tool  like  the  hammer. 


28 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


Plain  Moulding     Swan  MecA 


Cab/net  5cror/>ers          Veneer  Scraper 


Section  A- A 


3/acte. 


Fig.  71 


Half  Round  Wood  Rasp 


Screw  drivers  must  be  made  of  a  tough  grade  of  steel  since 
they  are  subjected  to  a  severe  twisting  strain.  If  the  steel  is  not 
properly  tempered  it  will  chip  or  twist.  Unless  a  screw  driver 
is  properly  shaped  and  made  out  of  such  material  that  it  will 
retain  that  shape  it  is  useless.  The  point  should  be  square  and 
the  broad  faces  parallel  so  that  the  point  will  fit  into  the  slot 
in  the  head  of  the  screw.  It  should  never  be  sharpened  wedge 
shape  because  it  would  force  itself  out  of  the  screw  slot  instead 
of  holding  itself  in  place.  The  length  of  a  screw  driver  is  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  inches  from  point  to  ferrule.  The 
size  is  indicated  by  name,  Tower's  indicating  heavy,  cabinet 
medium,  and  light  cabinet  or  electrician  indicating  a  very  slender 
blade. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  wrenches.  Some  have  adjustable 
jaws  while  in  others  the  jaws  are  stationary.  A  wrench  usually 
get's  its  name  from  the  use  to  which  it  is  put,  such  as  bicycle 
wrench,  auto  wrench,  pipe  wrench  and  pocket  wrench.  Some- 
times, however,  the  name  is  given  on  account  of  the  shape,  like 
the  S  wrench  and  sometimes  from  the  name  of  the  manufacturer. 
The  wrench  perhaps  most  widely  used  is  known  as  the  Monkey 
wrench.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  designer  whose  name  was 
Mr.  Monkey. 

SCRAPING  TOOLS 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  scraping  tools,  Fig.  71,  those 
which  have  one  cutting  edge  and  those  having  many  cutting 
edges.  While  the  name  would  indicate  that  these  tools  scrape, 
in  reality  they  cut,  but  the  particles  removed  are  so  minute  as 
to  give  the  impression  that  the  surface  upon  which  they  are 
used,  has  been  merely  smoothed  down  or  scraped. 


SCRAPING  TOOLS 


29 


Fig.  J2. 


Rg.  73 


The  cabinet  scraper  is  nothing  more  than  a  square  edged 
piece  of  properly  tempered  steel  of  the  correct  contour,  some- 
times straight  and  sometimes  curved,  to  fit  special  needs.  A 
straight  edged  scraper  is  sometimes  held  in  a  bed,  like  the  bed  of 
a  plane  and  sometimes  in  a  handle.  If  held  in  a  bed  it  is  known 
as  a  veneer  scraper.  The  successful  cutting  of  a  scraper  depends 
upon  a  burr  or  wire  edge  rather  than  upon  a  keenly  sharp  edge, 
in  fact  the  edge  is  not  sharp.  The  wire  edge  scrapes  or  cuts  the 
surface  of  the  wood  when  the  scraping  edge  is  dragged  over  it, 
Fig.  72.  This  is  exactly  opposite  to  the  way  in  which  a  plane 
acts,  since  it  cuts  when  its  cutting  edge  is  pushed  ahead. 

The  type  of  scraper  having  many  cutting  surfaces  is  known 
as  a  file  or  rasp.  Its  surface  is  covered  with  teeth  similar  to  the 
wire  edge  of  a  scraper.  When  the  file  is  pushed  across  the  wood 
these  numerous  cutting  edges  scrape  or  smooth  the  surface. 
However,  cutting  down  a  surface  with  a  file  or  scraper  is  slow 
work  and  these  tools  should  never  be  made  to  do  the  work  which 
could  be  done  so  much  better  with  a  plane.  There  are  several 
hundred  varieties  of  files  suited  to  as  many  different  purposes. 
Their  shapes  are  usually  designated  by  such  terms  as  flat,  round, 
half  round,  taper,  knife,  etc.  The  more  teeth  to  a  given  area,  the 
finer  the  file,  and  the  smoother  will  be  the  surface  made  by  it. 
When  a  file  is  coarse  toothed  it  is  called  a  rasp.  A  file  or  rasp 
should  always  be  pushed  and  never  pulled  across  the  work. 
Fig.  73. 


30 


GRINDING  AND  WHETTING  TOOLS 

Edge  tools  should  be  kept  extremely  sharp  if  they  are  to 
produce  good  work.  They  are  grouped  into  two  general  classes, 
those  having  one  side  beveled  and  the  other  side  flat,  such  as 
chisels  and  plane  irons,  and  those  having  both  sides  tapered  to 
an  edge,  such  as  knives  or  hatchets. 

Edge  tools  are  sharpened  on  stones  or  wheels  composed  of 
a  substance  which  is  harder  than  tempered  stee).  This  substance 
is  known  as  an  abrasive.  The  particles  composing  it  must  be 
sharp  edged 'so  that  they  will  cut.  They  must  also  be  tough 
enough  to  stand  the  wear  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and  they 
must  be  so  cemented  or  held  together  that  the  surface  of  the 
abrasive  keeps  its  shape.  There  are  two  distinct  classes  of 
abrasives  used  in  sharpening  edge  tools,  one  a  natural  product, 
the  other  a  manufactured  article.  Whether  the  sharpening  tool 
be  a  natural  or  manufactured  product,  its  action  on  the  edge 
tool  is  the -same.  Both  kinds  can  be  secured  in  coarse,  medium 
or  fine  grit.  Sharpening  stones  and  grinding  wheels  to  meet  the 
demands  of  all  kinds  of  work  can  be  secured- in  either.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  the  demand  for  the  manufactured  article  is  increas- 
ing while  the  sales  of  the  natural  product  are  decreasing. 

A  hard  variety  of  sandstone  is  the  most  widely  known  of 
the  natural  abrasives.  The  grindstones,  scythestones  and 
whetstones  of  a  few  years  ago  were  all  made  out  of  this  natural 
product  and  are  still  produced  in  limited  quantities.  The  pro- 
duction of  these  articles  is  simple.  The  stone  is  merely  cut  out 
of  the  quarries  and  sawed  into  the  desired  shapes,  just  as  build- 
ing stone  is  quarried  and  shaped.  Washita  and  Arkansas  are 
other  forms  of  natural  stones  similar  to  sandstone  and  different 
degrees  of  hardness  and  coarseness  can  be  secured  in  either. 
The  hard  Arkansas  is  considered  the  best  natural  whetstone 
for  fine  edge  tools,  while  the  Washita  is  the  best  of  the  natural 
stones  for  wood  working  tools. 

Corundum  is  a  natural  product  but  it  has  to  be  worked 
into  shape  before  it  can  be  used  as  an  abrasive.  It  has  a  crystal 
like  formation.  The  crystals  must  be  crushed,  graded  to  size 
and  bound  together  into  the  desired  shape  of  the  stone  or  wheel 
with  a  suitable  kind  of  cement.  Particles  of  corundum  are  much 
harder  and  sharper  edged  than  sandstone,  in  fact  they  are  almost 
as  hard  as  a  diamond  and  the  diamond  is  the  hardest  known 
substance,  therefore  stones  made  of  corundum  will  cut  metals 
which  it  is  hard  to  cut  with  sandstone.  Emery  is  a  crude  form 
of  corundum. 


GRINDING  31 

The  discovery  of  the  manner  ot  producing  artificial  abrasives 
is  thought  to  have  been  an  accident,  but  whether  it  was  or  not 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  manufactured  abrasives 
called  Alundum  or  Aloxite  the  substance  composing  the  stones 
is  about  the  same  as  at  composing  corundum.  In  other  words, 
these  manufactured  abrasives  are  almost  identical  with  the 
natural  products. 

Alundum  and  Aloxite  are  made  by  fusing  in  an  electric  fur- 
nace certain  kinds  of  clay  containing  a  large  per  cent  of  alumi- 
num oxide.  The  processes  necessary  to  makie  these  abrasives 
are  as  follows :  the  clay  is  taken  from  the  mines,  washed,  dried, 
ground,  calcined  (brought  to  a  red  heat)  and  fused  by  being  fed 
into  an.  open  electric  arc  similar  to  the  carbons  in  a  street  electric 
light.  These  carbons,  each  approximately  4  inches  by  12  inches 
in  cross  section,  are  placed  near  the  top  of  fire  proof  crucibles 
and  as  the  clay  is  melted  it  drops  into  the  crucible  below  the 
carbons.  It  takes  this  mass  of  melted  clay,  now  called  Alundum 
or  Aloxite,  several  days  to  cool  enough  that  it  can  be  broken, 
crushed  and  graded.  The  grading  is  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  sieves  of  different  mesh.  This  crushed  material  is  then  made 
up  into  abrasive  paper  or  cloth,  grinding  wheels  and  whetstones 
of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  depending  on  the  use  to  which  they  are 
to  be  put. 

Carborundum  and  Crystolon  are  also  products  of  an  electric 
furnace,  but  the  chief  substance  in  their  composition  is  carbon 
instead  of  aluminum  as  in  the  case  of  Alundum  and  Aloxite. 
Coke  and  sand  are  mixed  together  in  the  right  proportion  and 
placed  in  huge  electric  furnaces  and  melted.  The  result  is  a 
beautiful  bluish  crystal  formation,  extremely  sharp  edged  and 
just  as  hard  as  Alundum  but  not  quite  so  tough.  Grinding  and 
whetting  stones  are  made  from  it  in  the  same  manner  as  those 
made  from  Alundum.  They  cut  more  quickly  but  owing  to  the 
brittleness  of  the  crystals  they  do  not  keep  their  shapes  as  well 
as  those  made  of  other  material. 

Sharpening  edge  tools  is  performed  in  two  distinct  kinds 
of  operations,  i.e.,  grinding  and  whetting.  Grinding  consists  of 
roughly  removing  the  bulk  of  waste  material  and  giving  the 
tool  the  proper  shape.  This  is  accomplished  by  holding  the 
tool  against  a  revolving  grinding  wheel  or  grindstone  made 
from  medium  or  coarse  grit.  Whetting  consists  in  putting  a 
keen  cutting  edge  on  the  tool.  It  is  accomplished  on  a  flat  whet- 
stone procurable  in  varying  degrees  of  coarseness,  the  selection 
being  made  according  to  the  kind  and  quality  of  tool  being 
sharpened  and  also  the  use  to  which  the  tool  is  to  be  put.  Some 
whetstones  are  made  with  a  fine  surface  on  one  side  and  a 
coarser  surface  on  the  other.  This  makes  it  possible  to  roughly 


32 


GRINDING  AND  WHETTING  TOOLS 


Fig.  3 


cut  away  the  tool  on  one  side  and  finish  the  whetting  to  a  keen 
edge  on  the  other. 

It  is  very  essential  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  be  of  the 
proper  shape.  Beveled  edge  tools  should  have  the  proper  pitch 
or  angle  and  this  same  pitch  or  angle  should  be  retained  at  all 
times.  This  can  best  be  accomplished  if  the  beveled  edge  is 
somewhat  hollow  ground.  For  this  reason  round  grindstones 
are  used,  Fig.  1,  the  diameter  of  the  stone  regulating  the  acute- 
ness  of  the  arc,  thus  making  the  hollow  more  or  less  pronounced. 

The  grinding  surface  of  the  grinder  should  revolve  toward 
the  tool,  not  away  from  it,  A-Fig.  1.  Examination  through  a 
microscope  of  a  surface  of  steel  which  has  been  ground  will 
reveal  the  fact  that,  while  the  cutting  stone  really  cuts  away 
some  of  the  particles,  others  are  combed  out  and  laid  parallel 
to  each  other.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  while  steel  is  thought 
of  as  a  brittle  substance,  the  minute  particles  of  wjiich  it  is 
composed  are  very  flexible  and  bend  easily.  If  the  grindstone 
is  made  to  revolve  away  from  the  edge  of  the  tool  as  at  B-Fig.  1 
a  feather  or  wire  edge  will  be  produced  which  will  prevent  the 
edge  from  becoming  sharp,  while  if  the  stone  is  turned  in  the 
opposite  direction,  toward  the  tool,  this  wire  edge  is  turned 
under  and  cut  off.  While  a  wire  edge  can  be  removed  during 
the  whetting  process,  it  takes  much  time  and  it  is  a  much  more 
difficult  task  than  to  remove  it  when  grinding. 

Some  abrasives  cut  more  rapidly  than  others,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  cutting  particles  of  some  kinds  are  sharper  than 
others.  The  friction  caused  by  the  rubbing  of  the  grindstone 
against  the  tool  generates  heat.  The  sharper  the  cutting  edges 
of  the  particles  which  make  up  the  stone,  the  less  heat  is  gen- 
erated. Usually  water  or  oil  must  be  poured  over  the  surface 
of  a  grindstone  when  the  tool  is  being  ground.  This  water  or 
oil  serves  two  purposes :  it  washes  away  the  small  particles  of 
steel  cut  off  the  tool,  and  it  cools  the  tool  and  stone.  If  the 
particles  of  steel  were  not  Washed  away  they  would  fill  up  the 


WHETTING 


33 


Tool  flat  against 
stone 


Direction  ef 
stroke 


pores  in  the  surface  of  the  stone,  reducing  its  cutting  power,  and 
it  would  also  cause  so  much  frictional  heat  that  the  temper 
would  be  drawn  out  of  the  tool;  in  other  words,  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  tool  would  be  so  burnt  that  it  would  not  hold  a 
sharp  edge.  (See  page  220  on ''Tempering  Tools/')  If  the  grind- 
stone is  quite  coarse,  the  revolving  stone  will  throw  out  the 
particles  of  steel  and,  while  water  or  oil  are  not  needed  on  such 
a  stone,  their  absence  necessitates  the.  tool  being  held  very 
lightly  against  the  stone  or  the  edge  will  be  burned. 

Whetting,  as  has  been  stated,  is  done  on  a  flat  stone,  the 
tool  being  rubbed  over  the  stone  instead  of  the  stone  being 
revolved  against  the  tool.  The  finer  the  stone  the  keener  the 
edge  produced  on  the  tool.  The  whetting  should  be  done  in 
precisely  the  same  way  as  grinding,  the  tool  always  being  moved 
over  the  stone  toward  the  cutting  edge.  Oil  should  be  used  to 
float  away  the  particles  of  steel  ground  off  of  the  tool.  Care 
must  be  taken  at  each  stroke  of  the  whetting  to  keep  the  tool 
in  the  same  position  in  relation  to  the  stone  so  that  no  unneces- 
sary bevels  or  rounded  edges  will  be  formed.  Fig.  3  shows  the 
position  of  the  tool  and  of  the  hands  when  whetting  a  tool. 
A-Fig.  2  shows  the  whetting  angle  at  the  time  of  the  first 
whetting  after  the  tool  has  been  ground,  B,  the  second  whetting 
and  C  a  still  later  whetting.  D  shows  a  tool  which  has  the 
proper  bevel  for  cutting,  while  E  and  F  show  why  improperly 
beveled  tools  cannot  cut. 

Chisels  and  the  cutting  irons  for  planes  need  to  be  ground 
to  different  angles  for  different  kinds  of  wood.  The  harder  the 
wood,  the  shorter  the  grinding  bevel  required.  The  reason  for 
this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  longer  the  bevel,  the  thinner  the 
edge.  A  thin  edge  will  break  easily  in  hard  wood.  A-Fig.  2 
shows  a  short  grinding  bevel  suitable  for  hard  wood  like  oak, 
yellow  pine,  hard  maple,  etc.,  and  D-Fig.  2  shows  a  long  bevel 
suitable  for  basswood,  sugar  pine,  chestnut,  etc. 

When  sharpening  bevel  edge  tools,  even  though  the  tool  is 


34 


GRINDING  AND  WHETTING  TOOLS 


pushed  in  the  proper  direction,  a  slight  feather  edge  will  appear. 
This  should  be  removed  by  turning  the  tool  flat  side  down  and 
giving  it  a  few  strokes  over  the  whetstone,  Fig.  4.  Unless  the 
tool  is  held  perfectly  flat  during  this  operation  a  bevel  will  be 
formed  on  the  side  which  must  necessarily  remain  flat. 

When  grinding  an  edge  tool  on  a  stone  having  a  face  nar- 
rower than  the  width  of  the  tool,  it  is  necessary  to  slide  the  tool 
from  side  to  side  so  that  the  entire  edge  of  the  tool  is  ground, 
Fig.  5,  but  the  angle  of  the  tool  in  relation  to  the  stone  must 
not  be  changed.  Fig.  6  shows  a  type  of  grinder  having  an  auto- 
matic rest  for  the  tool  so  that  once  it  is  properly  set,  any  number 
of  tools  of  the  same  kind  may  be  ground  in  it  and  the  angle  on 
all  will  be  the  same. 

In  whetting  a  knife,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  any  bevel  appearing  on  the  edge.  The  knife  should  be 
held  as  in  Fig.  7  and  drawn  across  the  stone  with  as  much  of 
the  blade  as  possible  held  against  the  stone,  Fig.  7.  When 
the  end  of  the  stroke  is  reached,  the  knife  is  turned  over  and 
the  blade  is  pushed  away,  with  the  blade  again  held  tightly 
against  the  surface  of  the  whetstone.  A  faulty  practice  engaged 
in  by  some  persons  is  to  give  the  tool  a  rotary,  scouring  motion. 
This  should  never  be  done.  A  few  strokes,  well  directed,  with 
the  tool  held  properly,  will  accomplish  much  better  results  than 
those  obtained  by  the  revolving  method. 

When  an  especially  keen  edge  is  desired,  the  tool  is  stropped, 
that  is,  it  is  rubbed  over  a  leather  strop  in  much  the  same  way 
as  it  was  over  the  stone,  excepting  that  the  tool  is  pushed  away 
from  the  cutting  edge  instead  of  toward  it.  The  surface  of  the 
leather  might  otherwise  be  cut  or  marred. 


.  35 


WOOD  AND  LUMBER 


The  lumber  used  in  constructive  work  is  obtained  from  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  The  tree  is  cut  down,  the  trunk  is  sawed  into 
logs  which  are  then  taken  to  the  mill  where  they  are  sawed 
into  lumber.  The  lumber  is  allowed  to  dry  out  or  season,  partly 
by  being  stacked  in  the  open  with  sticks  between  each  layer 
so  that  air  can  circulate  around  each  board,  afterward  by 
placing  these  boards  in  a  steam  heated  room  called  a  kiln  where 
the  drying  process  is  completed.  The  sticks  used  for  air-drying 
lumber  are  usually  about  l"xl^"  and  of  sufficient  length 
to  extend  across  the  entire  stack  of  lumber  and  they  are  usually 
placed  about  three  to  five  feet  apart.  If  the  boards  are  dried 
too  quickly  they  become  brittle  and  less  durable.  If  the  moisture 
does  not  leave  the  board  on  all  sides  at  the  same  time  it  will 
shrink  unevenly.  It  will  dry  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other, 
resulting  in  the  cupping  or  curling  of  the  board  toward  the  side 
which  has  dried  the  more  quickly.  This  cupping  of  the  surface 
of  a  board  is  called  warping.  If  the  board  dries  unevenly  and 
twists,  it  is  said  to  be  "in  wind."  A  board  has  a  tendency  to 
warp  or  cup  more  on  the  side  which  grew  nearest  the  bark,  as 
that  side  contains  a  greater  amount  of  moisture.  When  this 
moisture  is  driven  off,  that  side  of  the  bcfard  shrinks  more  than 
the  one  nearer  the  center  of  the  tree. 

After  it  is  thoroughly  dried,  lumber  for  rough  work,  like 
framing  and  scaffolding,  'is  ready  for  use.  For  most  work, 
however,  the  surface  of  the  lumber  must  be  smoothed.  This  is 
called  surfacing.  Lumber  which  has  been  surfaced  is  known 
as  dressed  lumber. 

Some  wood  is  adapted  to  one  kind  of  work  and  some  to 
another.  Some  woods  are  strong,  others  weak ;  some  tough, 
others  brittle ;  some  split  easily  but  are  hard  to  break  across 
the  grain ;  some  are  nicely  marked  by  the  grain  while  in  others 
the  markings  are  uninteresting.  It  is  therefore  possible  to 
pick  out  a  kind  of  wood  suited  to  the  kind  of  project  to  be  made. 
For  example,  an  axe  handle  or  the  spokes  in  a  wheel  should 
be  tough  and  hard  to  break.  Hickory  is  well  suited  for  this 
purpose.  The  frame  work  of  a  house  should  be  strong  but  it 
does  not  necessarily  have  to  possess  a  beautiful  grain.  Pine  is 
suitable  for  such  uses.  Furniture  should  have  beautiful  grain. 
Oak  and  walnut  possess  this  quality,  while  chestnut,  even 
though  the  appearance  of  the  grain  is  much  like  oak,  is  too 
soft  to  stand  the  hard  usage  given  furniture.  The  accompany- 
ing chart  gives  the  general  characteristics  and  adaptability  of 
the  most  commonly  used  woods.  See  page  40. 


36 


WOOD  AND   LUMBER 


Fig.l 


tenter  or  Pith 


.  2 


The  growth  of  a  tree  takes  place  just  under  the  bark. 
Food  stuff  is  taken  out  of  the  soil  under  the  tree  by  the  roots 
and  carried  by  the  sapwood,  the  outer  rows  of  cells  just  under 
the  bark,  to  the  crown  of  the  tree,  where  the  leaves  digest  the 
food  and  send  it  down  the  trunk,  part  to  form  new  wood  on 
the  outside  of  that  already  made  and  part  to  make  new  bark 
on  the  inside  of  that  already  formed,  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  this  way 
the  tree  trunk  increases  in  diameter. 

The  tree  grows  more  rapidly  during  certain  seasons  than 
during  others.  This  difference  in  growth  is  very  pronounced 
for  the  cells  carrying  the  food  stuff  at  the  rapid  growing  season, 
spring,  are  stretched  to  their  utmost  capacity,  resulting  in  their 
walls  being  thin  and  the  openings  large.  In  the  slow  growing 
season,  summer,  the  openings  in  the  cells  are  very  small  and 
the  walls  thick.  When  a  tree  is  cut  down  and  the  log  or  stump 
examined,  Fig.  3,  these  rows  of  growth  are  very  noticeable  and 
it  is  easy  to  detect  one  year's  growth  from  another.  These 
markings  are  called  annual  rings  and  it  is  the  lines  produced 
by  them  which  give  the  pattern  called  grain  to  lumber  when 
it  is  cut  out  of  a  log.  There  are  also  rows  of  cells  radiating 
from  the  center  of  the  log  to  the  bark,  called  medulary  rays. 
These  cells  are  hard  and  compact  and  usually  form  themselves 
in  nearly  straight  lines.  Their  purpose  is  to  hold  the  annual 
rings  together,  therefore  a  tree  having  very  pronounced  medulary 
rays  is  much  stronger  than  a  tree  in  which  they  are  less  pro- 
nounced. 

While  the  diameter  of  the  tree  is  being  increased  by  these 
annual  rings  of  growth,  the  height  is  also  continually  increased, 
for  each  year's  growth  extends  beyond  that  of  the  former  year. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  each  year's  growth 
is  fixed,  that  only  by  the  next  year  building  on  top  of  it  and 


SAWING 


37 


Heart  wood 


grortffi 


Fig.4 


around  it  does  the  tree  develop  in  height  and  diameter.  Fig.  8 
shows  an  exaggerated  drawing  of  this  growth,  A  representing  a 
section  of  a  nine  year  old  tree  split  through  the  center  from  top 
to  bottom,  B  a  cross  section  near  the  base,  showing  the  number 
of  annual  rings  intersected  and  C  a  cross  section  near  the  top. 

The  wood  nearest  the  bark  usually  contains  more  sap  than 
the  center  part  of  the  trunk  because  it  is  nearer  the  growing 
part.  It  is  called  the  sapwood,  while  the  center  part  of  the  trunk 
is  called  the  heartwood.  Sapwood  can  usually  be  distinguished 
from  the  heartwood  because  it  is  lighter  in  color.  As  the  tree 
increases  in  size  it  must  have  more  bark  to  protect  it  from  the 
weather,  consequently  the  bark  increases  in  thickness.  Since 
the  bark  grows  on  the  inside,  it  stretches  the  outside  until  it 
cracks  or  divides  in  clefts.  Fig.  3  is  a  drawing  of  the  end  of  a 
log  of  oak  and  Fig.  4  shows  a  highly  magnified  section  of  the 
end  of  the  same  log,  showing  the  decided  difference  between 
spring  and  summer  growth. 

When  a  slab  is  sawed  'from  a  log,  Fig.  5,  it  leaves  a  flat 
surface  exposed.  This  flat  surface  cuts  through  many  of  the 
annual  rings.  If  this  cut  is  in  exactly  the  same  direction  as  the 
fibers  or  cells,  straight  lined  grain  is  the  result,  but  if  the  cut  is 
at  a  slight  angle  or  if  the  tree  trunk  in  growing  was  slightly 
bent,  an  irregular  marking  is  the  result.  A  board  or  slab  taken 
off  the  top  of  this  log,  A-Fig.  6,  will  have  a  similar  marking  to 
the  one  taken  off  the  side,  but  if  the  log  is  cut  in  quarters 
through  the  center  (see  dotted  line,  Fig.  6)  and  a  board,  B, 
sawed  off  of  either  of  these  new  faces,  a  kind  of  grain  entirely 
different  in  appearance  is  exposed.  This  is  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  annual  rings  are  much  closer  together  at  the  points 
intersected  by  the  saw  in  this  board  than  they  are  at  similar 


38 


WOOD  AND   LUMBER 


Fig.  5 


points  in  the  slab  and  that  the  saw  has  cut  in  the  direction  of 
the  medulary  rays,  exposing  them  on  the  broad  faces  of  the 
board.  The  medulary  ray  is  very  hard.  When  its  broad  sur- 
faces are  exposed  by  the  saw  cut,  pleasing  patterns  are  produced. 
Boards  sawed  near  the  outer  edge  of  the  log  cut  across  the 
medulary  rays,  consequently  they  show  but  little.  Fig.  7  show- 
ing these  marked  differences,  represent  boards  A  and  B,  Fig.  6, 
after  they  have  been  removed  from  the  log.  When  a  board  is 
sawed  from  the  log  near  the  quartering  line,  exposing  the  broad 
surfaces  of  the  medulary  rays,  it  is  said  to  be  quarter  sawed 
lumber.  When  it  is  sawed  near  the  outer  edges  of  the  log  it  is 
said  to  be  plain  sawed.  The  medulary  rays  bind  the  annual 
rings  together  and  make  a  strong  wood,  which  is  less  susceptible 
to  warping  than  wood  without  pronounced  medulary  rays. 

Knots  in  wood  are  cross  sections  of  the  base  of  limbs.  Fig.  9 
shows  a  section  through  the  trunk  of  a  seven  year  old  tree, 
having  a  limb  which  lived  only  four  years.  A  board  sawed 
thorugh  this  log  at  a  point  indicated  by  line  A — A,  Fig.  9,  would 
have  a  sound  knot  in  it  where  it  cuts  through  the  limb.  A  board 
taken  out  of  the  log  at  B — B  would  have  a  loose  or  dead  knot. 
When  this  tree  has  become  several  years  older  the  bark  will  have 
completely  sealed  over  the  trunk  arid  from  all  outward  appear- 


Grain  fnarA/ngs  made  Zhafs  of  medulary 


(See  fiy.  6) 

7>cti  tifmedulory  rays 


Center  of  trte 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  6 


LUMBER  SIZES 


39 


Fig.  9 


ances  one  could  not  tell  that  a  knot  existed  underneath.  A 
board  taken  through  this  outer  part  of  the  log,  C — C,  would 
possess  crooked  grain  but  it  could  not  be  called  a  knot. 

Lumber  is  sawed  into  standard  lengths  of  8,  10,  12,  14,  16 
and  18  feet.  It  is  also  sawed  and  dressed  to  standard  thick- 
nesses as  follows : 


BOARDS 


LUMBER  SIZES 
dressed  to        " 


dressed  to 


* 


y 


1/8" 
13/8" 


PLANKS 


TIMBERS  i  6"  and  above. 

Thin  strips  are  called  boards,  heavy  boards  are  called  planks 
and  very  heavy  boards,  timbers. 

Lumber  is  measured  and  sold  by  board  or  face  measure, 
1"  thick,  12"  wide  and  12"  long  indicating  one  foot,  face  or  board 
measure.  Anything  less  than  1"  thick  is  counted  face  measure. 
Anything  more  than  1"  thick  is  multiplied  by  the  thickness  as 
expressed  in  inches  or  fractions  of  an  inch.  The  general  rule 
for  measuring  lumber  is  to  multiply  the  length  of  the  board  in 
feet,  by  the  width  and  thickness  in  inches  and  divide  by  twelve, 
for  example,  l"x9"Xl4'0"-^-12=10K,  the  number  of  board  feet 
in  the  board. 

Lumber  is  separated  into  grades.     Each  kind  of  wood  is 

traded  differently  but  in  general  the  grades  are  as  follows : 
rsts,  seconds,  common,  saps,  selects,  etc.  Lumber  is  always 
graded  by  the  appearance  of  the  best  side.  Prices  on  lumber  are 
usually  quoted  per  M,  meaning  that  the  price  given  is  for  one 
thousand  feet  board  measure.  (B.  M.)  In  making  out  a  bill  of 
material  the  dimensions  are  always  given  in  the  following  order: 
thickness,  width,  length,  regardless  of  which  dimension  is  the 
longest ;  in  other  words,  length  always  means  with  the  grain. 
This  is  done  to  simplify  the  lumberman's  work.  See  section 
on  "Mechanical  Drawing"  for  a  complete  mill  bill. 


40 


QUALITIES  OF  WOOD 


1 

Hardness 

Strength 

Elasticity 

Grain 

Medulary 
ray 

Weight 

Clevlbillt7 

Kind  of 
Wood 

1 

a 

s 

p 

I 

M 

I 

1 

£ 

, 

, 

I 

I 

£ 

Medium 

Obscure  or  closed 

£ 

Visible  but  not 
pronounced 

£ 

I 

Medium 

3 

a 

Splita  with 
difficulty 

a 

3 

Split*  easily 

Ash 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

• 

2 

Basswood 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

3 
4 

5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 

17 

18 
19 

Beech 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Birch 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cedar 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Chestnut 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cypress 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Gum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hickory 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Mahogany 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Maple  (hard) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Maple  (soft) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Oak 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pine  (hard) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pine  (soft) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

— 

Poplar 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Spruce 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Sycamore 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Walnut 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

USES  OF  WOOD  41 


USES 


1  Interior  finish,  cabinet  work,  barrel  hoops,  tool  handles,  oars,  agricul- 
rural  implements,  boats,  saddle  trees,  wheel  hubs. 

2  Paper  pulp,  wooden  ware,  picture  moulding,  cigar  boxes,  toys,  wagon 
beds. 

3  Tool  handles,  baskets,  shoe  lasts,  levelers,  chairs,  fuel,  shoe  heels. 

4  Interior  trim,  spools,  shoe  lasts,  button  molds,  furniture,  dowel  pins, 
wooden  ware,  paper  pulp,  shoe  heels. 

6     Chests,  cooperage,  shingles,  electric  light  poles,  pencils,  railroad  ties, 
pails,  street  paving  blocks,  cigar  boxes. 

6  Railroad  ties,  electric  light  poles,  interior  finish,  cores  for  veneers, 
fence  posts. 

7  Shingles,  posts,  cooperage,  railroad  ties,  construction  work. 

8  Veneering,  wheel  hubs,  construction  work. 

9  Tool  handles,  wheel  spokes,  agricultural  implements,  chair  seat  splits, 
barrel  hoops,  single  and  double  trees,  fuel. 

10  Cabinet  making,  veneers,  interior  finish,  pattern  making. 

11  Flooring,  furniture,  wooden  type,  shoe  lasts,  p\ano  actions,  ship  keels, 
tool  handles,  dowel  pins. 

12  Wooden  ware,  furniture,  flooring,  oars,  fuel. 

13  Cabinet  work,  interior  trim,  cooperage,  agricultural  implements,  posts, 
construction  work. 

14  Heavy  building  timbers,  construction  work,  interior  finish,  railroad 
ties,  flooring. 

15  Doors,  window  sash,  matches,  patterns,  telephone  poles. 

16  Wooden    pumps,    furniture,   construction    work,   boats,    carriage   and 
wagon  bodies,  toys,  coffin  boxes. 

17  Paper    pulp,     sounding    boards     in     musical     instruments,     ladders, 
cooperage. 

18  Butcher's  blocks,  furniture,  inside  frame  work,  tobacco  boxes. 

19  Gun  stocks,  cabinet  making,  veneers,  picture  frames. 


42 


WOOD  FASTENERS 


Fig.  1 


Common  VJire  Nail 


W/'re  Brad 
F/oor/ng  NaiL 


of  wire 


VJire  Gauge 


fig.3 


WOOD  FASTENERS 

There  are  many  devices  and  materials  used  in  fastening 
wood  together,  such  as  nails,  screws,  bolts,  glue,  dowels,  plates, 
hinges,  etc.  Since  each  is  so  different  from  the  other  they  should 
be  discussed  separately. 

NAILS 

Nails  at  one  time  were  ctit  out  of  sheet  metal,  but  now  most 
nails  are  made  out  of  wire.  Wire  of  the  proper  size  is  fed  from 
large  coils  into  a  machine  which  cuts  it  to  the  proper  length, 
points  it  at  one  end  and  gives  it  the  proper  shaped  head  at  the 
other. 

The  kind  of  nails  used  depends  somewhat  on  the  project 
being  made.  The  size  is  also  determined  by  the  size  and  char- 
acter of  the  material  used.  Some  kinds  of  wood  split  easily, 
therefore  the  nails  must  be  small  in  diameter  but  long  enough  to 
hold  the  pieces  together.  If  the  wood  is  hard  and  compact,  a 
nail  small  in  diameter  will,  in  all  probability,  bend  before  it 
penetrates  the  wood  to  tfte  proper  depth.  In  such  a  case  a  hole 
slightly  smaller  than  the  nail  should  be  drilled  in  the  wood 
before  the  nail  is  driven  into  it.  Some  articles  require  a  nail 
with  a  large  head  while  on  some  the  large  head  is  unnecessary 
and  is  a  disfiguration. 

The  shape  of  the  nail  indicates  the  kind  of  a  fastener  it  is, 
Fig.  1,  for  instance,  the  one  with  the  large  but  flat  head  is  gen- 
erally known  as  a  common  wire  nail.  The  one  with  a  head 


NAILS 


43 


WIRE    NAIL  3izc* 

ID5TH 

INCHES 

W     RE.        NUMBERS 

6 

7 

a 

9 

10 

It 

IZ 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Id 

19 

zo 

Zl 

22. 

3 

X 

X 

X 

X 

s 

X 

X 

X 

X  J 

X 

Yi 

X 

X 

X 

X 

H 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

% 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

% 

X 

y. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

l>6 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

jS 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1/2 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1% 

X 

X 

X 

X 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

2 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

2M 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

^y^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

2M 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

3 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

3^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

3^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

4 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

smaller  in  diameter  but  thicker,  is  known  as  the  brad  or  finishing 
nail  while  the  one  with  the  tapering  head  is  the  flooring  nail. 

The  size  of  a  nail  is  usually  indicated  by  the  term  "penny," 
as  twopenny,  fourpenny,  etc.,  written  2d,  4d,  etc.  This  orig- 
inally indicated  that  one  thousand  nails  would  weigh  the  number 
of  pounds  indicated  by  the  figure.  The  size  of  nails  is  some- 
times indicated  by  measure  as,  1 — 17.  The  first  figure  indicates 
the  length  in  inches  and  the  last  figure  the  size  of  the  wire  out 
of  which  the  nail  is  made,  Fig.  2.  The  larger  the  wire  number 
the  smaller  the  wire.  Not  all  lengths  of  nails  are  made  in  all 
sizes  of  wire.  The  accompanying  chart  shows  the  range  of 
sizes  of  wire  brads  up  to  four  inches.  The  sizes  of  brads  and 
floor  nails  are  indicated  by  measure  only.  Special  nails  are 
designed  for  special  purposes  such  as  trunk  nails,  roofing  nails, 
clout  nails,  clinch  nails,  etc. 

When  two  pieces  of  wood  are  to  be  nailed  together,  they 
should  be  placed  in  position  and  the  kind  and  size  of  nails  which 
best  fill  the  need  selected.  Nails  driven  into  the  wood  at  a 
slant,  A-Fig.  3,  will  have  much  greater  holding  power  than  nails 
driven  in  straight  as  in  B-Fig.  3,  especially  if  slanted  in  opposite 
directions.  The  location  of  the  nail  points  should  be  well 
selected.  Proper  placing  will  insure  greater  strength.  Pleasing 
patterns  may  also  be  made  by  the  arrangement  of  the  nail  heads. 
A  nail  placed  too  close  to  the  end  of  the  wood,  C-Fig.  3,  forces 
it  to  break  out  a  piece  of  the  wood.  If  placed  too  close  to  the 


44 


WOOD  FASTENERS 


Fig.  4        Screws 

5       CO 


flat  head     Round  head  Fillister  head     Oval  head 


Screw  Gauge 


Fig.6 


edge,  the  wood  will  split,  or  if  slanted  too  much  the  point  of 
the  nail  will  project  and  mar  the  surface.  If  the  nails  are  to  go 
through  cross  grained  wood  only,  D-Fig.  3,  shorter  lengths  can 
be  used  than  when  the  nail  is  driven  partly  into  end  grain  as 
in  E-Fig.  3.  Edge  or  side  grain  pinches  the  nail  much  tighter 
than  end  grain,  therefore,  the  holding  power  is  greater. 

Nails  should  be  driven  with  the  hammer  until  the  head  is 
almost  even  with  the  surface  of  the  wood.  They  should  never 
be  driven  far  enough  to  dent  the  wood  with  the  hammer. 

Nails  rust  when  exposed  to  moisture.  If  the  article  being 
nailed  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  nails  should  be 
driven  in  until  their  heads  are  below  the  surface  of  the  wood.  A 
nail  set  is  used  for  this  purpose,  Fig.  1  in  section  on  "Driving 
Tools."  The  hole  left  over  the  nail  after  it  is  "set"  should  be 
rilled  with  putty. 

WOOD  SCREWS 

Where  two  or  more  pieces  of  wood  which  may  be  subjected 
to  any  great  strain  are  to  be  fastened  together,  or  where  metal 
is  to  be  held  against  wood,  screws  are  used  as  fasteners.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  screws,  the  difference  being  either  in  the 
shape  of  the  heads  or  in  the  kind  of  material  out  of  which  they 
are  made.  The  different  shaped  heads  are  flat,  round,  fillister 
and  oval,  Fig.  4.  Any  of  these  styles  can  be  secured  in  iron, 
finished  bright  or  blue,  or  in  brass.  Screws  copper  or  nickel 
plated  are  made  but  are  used  only  in  connection  with  special 
cabinet  fittings  which  are  copper  or  nickel  plated. 

The  size  of  a  screw  is  designated  with  two  numbers,  for 
example,  \y\ — 8.  The  first  number  indicates  the  length  in 
inches  and  the  second  number  the  size  or  gauge  of  the  un- 
threaded part  of  the  screw.  Fig.  5  illustrates  the  method  of 
gauging  the  length  and  size  of  a  screw  with  a  screw  gauge.  In 
flat  head  screws  the  length  number  indicates  the  measurement 


,  WOOD  SCREWS 


45 


UNfiTM 

IRON  AND  BRASS  SCREW    SIZES 

ilKHti 
V* 

H 

Yt 
5/fl 

?4 

0 
X 

i 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

a 

X 

9 
X 

10 

x 

X 

y 

IZ 

X 
^ 

15 
X 

14 
X 

x 

15 

16 

17 

10 

to 

Z2 

2-4 

26 

ze> 

30 

'/e 
1 

5 
S 

I  3s 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X. 
X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

Z 
2)4 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

2& 
3 
3Ji 
4 
4/i 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

* 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X. 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

5 
6 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

over  all;  in  round  or  fillister  head  screws,  that  from  the  screw 
point  to  the  shoulder  under  the  head;  in  the  oval  head,  that 
from  the  screw  point  to  the  center  of  the  head. 

Not  all  lengths  of  screws  can  be  obtained  in  all  sizes.  The 
accompanying  chart  gives  the  range  of  sizes  for  all  wood  screws. 
Flat  head  bright  screws  are  made  of  iron  and  polished.  Blue 
screws  are  made  in  the  same  way  but  after  being  polished  they 
are  heated  in  large  pans  over  a  furnace  and  while  hot,  plunged 
into  oil.  This  gives  the  metal  a  bluish  color.  Brass  screws  are 
made  entirely  of  brass.  They  are  used  instead  of  bright  or  blue 
screws  in  places  where  moisture  exists,  since  they  will  not  rust. 
They  are  much  softer  than  either  bright  or  blue  screws  and  are 
easily  twisted  in  two.  Their  heads  are  easily  marred  if  the 
screwdriver  is  not  carefully  used.  Screws  are  sold  by  the  gross, 
being  packed  a  gross  in  a  box. 

Where  two  or  more  pieces  of  wood  are  to  be  fastened 
together,  or  where  metal  is  to  be  fastened  to  wood,  holes  of 
sufficient  size  to  give  clearance  to  the  screws  should  be  bored 
in  the  piece  or  pieces  through  which  the  screw  is  to  pass.  If 
the  wood  into  which  the  screw  is  to  be  anchored  is  very  hard 
a  hole  slightly  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  screw,  should*  be 
bored  to  the  depth  to  which  the  screw  is  to  enter.  Since  the 
action  of  the  screw  point  is  to  separate  the  fibers,  the  wood 
will  sometimes  split  if  such  a  hole  is  not  made  or  in  case  the 
wood  is  extremely  hard  the  screw  will  be  twisted  in  two  if 
there  is  no  hole  for  it  to  enter.  In  forcing  screws  into  soft 
wood  they  are  placed  through  the  hole  in  the  first  board,  that 


46  WOOD  FASTENERS 

board  is  placed  in  position  on  the  second  board  and  the  screw 
given  a  light  tap  with  a  hammer  or  mallet.  This  engages  the 
point.  A  screw  driver  is  then  inserted  in  the  slot  in  the  screw 
head  and  turned  clockwise  until  the  screw  draws  the  pieces  of 
wood  or  wood  and  metal  together.  In  case  flat  head  screws 
are  used  the  wood  should  be  reamed  out  with  a  countersink  to 
a  sufficient  depth  to  take  the  screw  head.  See  countersink  in 
section  on  "Boring  Tools." 

One  should  grip  the  handle  of  the  screw  driver  firmly  when 
driving  the  screw.  At  the  end  of  each  turn  the  grip  on  the 
handle  is  released,  the  hand  slid  backwards  around  the  handle, 
a  new  grip  taken  and  the  screw  given  another  turn.  The  screw 
driver  point  should  always  remain  in  the  slot  in  the  screw  until 
the  operation  is  completed.  Otherwise  the  screw  head  is 
scratched  or  twisted  out  of  shape. 

When  sufficient  strength  cannot  be  obtained  with  the  screw 
driver  to  force  the  screw  into  the  wood,  a  screw  driver  may  be 
inserted  in  the  bit  brace.  This  will  allow  sufficient  pressure 
and  the  sweep  of  the  brace  will  give  greater  twisting  power. 
The  point  of  the  bit  will  have  a  tendency  to  jump  out  of  the 
slot,  marring  the  screw  head.  This  can  be  avoided  if  the  rachet 
in  the  brace  is  adjusted,  the  brace  given  a  half  turn,  then,  with 
a  reverse  motion  brought  back  to  the  starting  position  and  the 
process  icpeated.  To  remove  a  screw  with  the  brace  and  bit, 
the  rachet  should  be  turned  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Screws  should  never  be  driven  into  the  wood  with  a  ham- 
mer, beyond  the  starting  point,  as  the  threads  tear  down  the 
fiber  structure  of  the  wood  and  destroy  the  holding  power,  Fig.  6. 

If  it  is  hard  to  turn  the  screws  in  the  wood,  the  resistance 
can  be  cut  down  by  rubbing  soap  into  the  threads  before  start- 
ing the  screw  into  the  wood. 

LAG  SCREWS 

For  very  heavy  work,  lag  screws  are  better  and,  in  some 
cases,  necessary.  Instead  of  the  head  being  slotted  to  hold  the 
screw  driver,  it  is  made  square  so  that  it  may  be  turned  with  a 
wrench.  1 — ]/$  is  the  smallest  size  of  lag  screw  obtainable  and 
the 'largest  is  12 — 1.  The  first  figure  indicates  the  length  in 
inches  from  the  screw  point  to  the  shoulder  under  the  head,  the 
second  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  unthreaded  part  of  the 
screw.  They  are  made  of  iron  and  are  sold  in  bulk  or  in  boxes 
containing  100  screws. 


BOLTS 


47 


Lag        Carriage       Stove. 
Screw  v 


Stove       Machine 


BOLTS 

There  are  several  kinds  of  bolts,  those  generally  used  being 
carriage,  stove  and  machine  bolts,  Fig.  7.  The  sizes  are  indi- 
cated in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  lag  screws.  Their  con- 
struction is  different  in  that  instead  of  a  tapering  screw,  the 
diameter  of  their  threaded  part,  which  does  not  taper,  is  just 
as  large  as  the  unthreaded  part.  Instead  of  them  holding  them- 
selves in  place  in  the  wood,  they  are  inserted  through  holes  in 
the  wood  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  bolt  to  pass  easily,  and 
a  nut  screwed  on  the  exposed,  threaded  end.  This  clamps  the 
pieces  of  wood  together  firmly.  The  nuts  are  made  square, 
hexagonal  and  octagonal.  Carriage  bolts  are  made  only  of  iron 
while  stove  and  machine  bolts  are  also  made  in  steel  and  brass. 
Carriage  bolts  are  round  headed  and  square  shanked.  The 
square  shank  keeps  the  bolt  from  turning  while  the  nut  is 
screwed  on,  it  is  therefore  very  necessary  that  the  hole  through 
which  the  bolt  is  to  be  inserted,  be  small  enough  to  engage  the 
corners  of  this  part  of  the  bolt  to  keep  it  from  turning.  The 
heads  of  stove  and  machine  bolts  are  slotted  the  same  as  screws 
so  that  they  can  be  kept  from  turning  with  the  screw  driver 
while  the  nut  is  screwed  on.  They  can  be  secured  with  either 
round  or  flat  heads. 

GLUE 

Screws,  bolts,  etc.,  are  mechanical  wood  fasteners.  Glue 
works  on  a  different  principle.  It  cements  the  two  parts  to- 
gether. All  wood  is  more  or  less  porous  and  when  glue  is 
applied  it  spreads  over  the  surface  into  the  pores.  If  held 
rigidly  in  one  position  until  the  glue  hardens,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  break  it  apart. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  glue,  animal  and  vegetable.  Animal 
glue  is  made  from  the  hoofs,  horns  or  hides  of  animals  or  from 
the  skins  of  fish.  These  substances  are  boiled  in  lime  water  to 


48  WOOD  FASTENERS 

remove  foreign  matter  and  are  then  thoroughly  washed,  strained 
and  allowed  to  dry.  When  almost  dry  they  are  sometimes 
shaved  into  small  flakes.  This  is  known  as  flake  glue.  After 
glue  has  been  allowed  to  harden  it  is  sometimes  broken  into 
chips  and  sometimes  ground  into  small  particles.  The  former 
kind  is  known  as  chip  glue  and  the  latter  as  ground  glue. 

Vegetable  glue  is  made  from  plants  containing  viscous 
matter.  It  is  manufactured  by  a  secret  process.  In  substance 
it  resembles  animal  glue  and  it  acts  in  about  the  same  way 
except  that  it  requires  the  application  of  greater  pressure  to  the 
parts  being  glued  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  especially 
well  suited  to  gluing  up  veneers. 

To  prepare  glue  for  use,  the  flakes,  chips,  or  ground  particles 
are  allowed  to  soak  in  cold  water  until  the  substance  becomes 
jelly  like.  This  requires  several  hours.  It  is  then  heated  slowly, 
preferably  in  a  double  boiler,  until  it  becomes  hot  and  easy 
flowing.  An  improvised  double  boiler  may  be  made  by  setting 
an  old  baking  powder  or  tomato  can  containing  the  glue  in  a 
somewhat  larger  vessel  of  boiling  water.  Because  glue  of  this 
kind  must  be  applied  hot  it  is  referred  to  as  hot  glue. 

Liquid  glue,  sometimes  called  cold  glue,  is  a  glue  which  is 
kept  in  solution  by  the  addition  of  acetic  acid.  It  remains  in 
solution  until  applied  to  a  surface  in  a  thin  layer,  when  it  be- 
comes dry  and  acts  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  hot  glue.  The  can 
should  be  kept  tightly  closed  when  not  in  use  or  the  entire  mass 
will  harden. 

Glue  should  always  be  applied  sparingly,  but  every  part  of 
each  of  the  surfaces  to  be  glued  together  must  be  covered.  Glue 
is  applied  with  a  brush  or  flat  stick.  If  only  a  small  amount  of 
gluing  is  to  be  done,  it  is  better  to  use  a  stick.  While  it  is  more 
difficult  to  spread  the  glue  evenly  with  a  stick,  cleaning  the 
brush  of  all  glue  after  it  is  used  takes  so  long  and  wastes  so 
much  material  that  it  is  hardly  justifiable  if  only  a  little  gluing 
is  to  be  done.  To  clean  a  glue  brush,  wash  and  rinse  it  thor- 
oughly in  hot  water  before  the  glue  has  been  allowed  to  become 
hard  or  dry  in  it. 

DOWELS 

Ordinarily  a  glued  joint  will  hold  as  well  as  any  other  part 
of  the  board,  but  if  the  surfaces  joined  together  are  short  and 
the  pieces  are  subjected  to  much  strain,  they  are  reinforced  with 
dowels.  Dowels  are  short,  round  rods  or  pins  of  hard  wood 
varying  in  diameter  from  3/16"  to  1".  They  usually  come 
in  rods  36"  long  and  may  be  cut  to  any  length  which 
suits  the  need.  They  are  inserted  in  auger  bit  holes  as  shown 


HINGES 


49 


-*-     Fig.9     Hinges 


Hinges          Fig.  10 


in  Fig.  8.  If  the  dowel  pin  fits  too  snugly  the  edges  of  the  hole 
will  scrape  all  of  the  glue  off  of  the  dowel  pin  when  it  is  inserted. 
If  too  loose  it  will  not  give  the  added  strength  to  the  joint.  If 
the  pin  fits  tightly  its  sides  should  be  grooved,  as  at  Fig.  8,  with 
a  marking  gauge.  The  glue  then,  instead  of  being  scraped  off, 
is  forced  into  the  channels  cut  by  the  gauge  and  forms  a  suffi- 
cient adhesive  to  hold  it  firmly  against  the  sides  of  the  hole. 

HINGES 

Hinges  are  a  kind  of  flexible  wood  fastener.  They  fasten 
it  rigidly  in  one  direction  and  allow  it  to  move  in  another. 
There  are  several  forms  of  hinges,  known  as  butt,  strap,  T,  table 
or  back  flap,  chest,  screen  and  invisible,  Fig.  9. 

The  most  generally  used  hinge  is  the  butt.  There  are  two 
kinds;  common,  those  in  which  the  pin  on  which  they  turn  is 
riveted  over  at  both  ends,  and  loose  pin,  those  from  which  the 
pin  may  be  removed  and  the  hinge  taken  apart.  The  butt  hinge 
is  used  for  hinging  boxes  and  doors  or  any  place  where  the 
leaves  can  be  set  between  the  two  parts  to  be  hinged.  The 
advantage  of  loose  pin  butts  is  that  a  door  hung  with  them  can 
be  taken  off  without  taking  off  the  hinges.  Both  loose  pin  and 
common  butt,  when  set  in  place,  show  only  the  knuckles  and 
acorns,  while  all  of  the  parts  of  the  strap  and  T  hinges  are 
visible.  Butt  hinges  must  be  set  into  the  wood  to  the  depth  of 
the  thickness  of  the  leaves  of  the  hinge. 

Strap  hinges  and  T  hinges  fasten  onto  the  exposed  faces  of 
the  parts  to  be  hinged  together.  Box  hinges  with  fancy  leaves 
are  a  form  of  strap  hinge. 

Back  flap  or  table  hinges  are  different  in  construction  from 
either  of  the  above  mentioned  in  that  the  knuckles  project  an 
equal  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves  while,  in  the  butt, 
strap  and  T  hinges,  the  backs  are  flat,  Fig.  10.  Back  flap  hinges 
require  a  great  deal  of  fitting,  both  in  setting  the  hinge  and 


50 


WOOD   FASTENERS 


Fig.  11 


Cupboard  Turn  Elben  Catcfi 


shaping  the  two  pieces  of  wood  so  that  they  fit  together  when 
closed. 

Chest  hinges  are  shaped  to  fit  around  the  corner  of  the  lid 
of  a  chest  and  the  screw  holes  in  the  leaves  are  separated  far 
enough  in  the  bent  leaf  so  that  the  screws  do  not  interfere  with 
each  other.  However,  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  the  screws  to  see  that  they  are  of  the  proper  length. 

Screen  hinges,  allow  the  parts  hinged  together  to  open  either 
way.  In  the  illustration,  Fig.  10,  the  two  parts  have  revolved 
on  the  knuckles,  A-A.  When  the  parts  are  opened  so  that  the 
two  edges  touch  each  other,  the  knuckles,  B-B,  are  also  in  line 
with  each  other,  and  if  the  faces,  C-C,  of  the  wood  were  brought 
together  as  D-D  have  been  in  the  illustration,  the  parts  would 
be  hinging  on  the  knuckles,  B-B.  Hinges  of  this  kind  are  used 
on  folding  screens  and  on  doors  which  must  open  two  ways. 

Invisible  hinges  are  used  where  it  is  desired  to  have  a  blind 
hinged  joint.  When  the  two  parts  are  closed  it  is  impossible  to 
tell  that  a  hinge  exists. 

LOCKS  AND  CATCHES 

The  principal  kinds  of  locks  are  door  locks,  drawer  locks, 
chest  locks  and  padlocks.  Wardrobe  locks  and  night  latches  are 
forms  of  the  door  lock.  Each  kind  of  lock  may  be  made  in 
various  types  of  construction,  the  two  principal  ones  being  com- 
mon and  cylinder.  Each  type  of  construction  requires  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  key.  Some  of  the  locks  are  mortised  into  the  wood 
and  others  are  merely  fastened  onto  it.  The  padlock  is  an  ex- 
ception, it  being  hooked  through  a  staple,  over  a  hasp.  Fig.  11 
shows  various  kinds  and  styles  of  locks  and  keys. 

If  it  is  not  necessary  to  open  a  door  from  both  sides,  it  may 
be  held  shut  with  a  catch.  Some  catches  open  by  turning  a 
knob,  others  by  sliding  a  bar  and  others  by  lifting  a  catch.  Fig. 
12  shows  various  styles  of  catches. 


PLATES 


51 


Fig.  13 


©         ©  ©         © 


F/at   P/ate 


©          © 


Corner 
Iron 


Angle  Iron 


Staple 


Corrugated  fastener 


PLATES 

Pieces  of  wood  are  sometimes  fastened  together  with  metal 
plates.  There  are  three  kinds  in  general  use,  i.e.,  flat  plates, 
corner  irons  and-  angle  irons.  Often  there  are  special  plates 
made  to  fit  special  places.  Plates  as  a  rule  are  used  to  reinforce 
joints  which  have  been  fastened  together  with  some  other  kind  of 
wood  fasteners. 

STAPLES,  ESCUTCHEON  PINS,  CORRUGATED 
FASTENERS 

Staples  are  pieces  of  wire  bent  U-shape  and  both  ends 
pointed.  They  come  in  various  lengths  and  sizes  of  wire.  They 
are  used  for  fastening  wire  or  wire  netting  to  wood.  They  are 
driven  into  the  wood  with  a  hammer.  Large  staples  are  some- 
times used  for  fastening  a  door  hasp  to  a  door  when  the  door 
is  thin  enough  to  allow  the  points  of  the  staple  to  project 
through  it  so  that  they  can  be  bent  over,  thus  riveting  the  hasp 
in  place. 

Escutcheon  pins  are  round  headed  nails  usually  made  of 
brass.  Their  real  purpose  is  for  fastening  escutcheons,  the  pro- 
tecting plate  around  the  keyhole  of  a  lock,  but  they  are  often 
used  for  fastening  on  light  box  hinges  where  the-  projecting  ends 
can  be  bent  over  on  the  inside  of  the  box. 

Corrugated  fasteners  are  used  to  reinforce  or  to  give  added 
strength  to  two  pieces  of  wood  joined  together  edgewise.  They 
should  not  be  used  unless  the  edges  have  first  been  glued  or 
nailed  together.  The  fastener,  sharp  edge  down,  is  placed  half 
over  each  piece  of  wood  and  driven  in  with  a  hammer.  Since 
the  pounding  sometimes  breaks  apart  the  nailed  or  glued  joint, 
it  is  well  to  clamp  the  pieces  together  while  driving  in  the 
fastener.  Corrugated  fasteners  come  in  lengths  ranging  from 
*/&"  to  1"  and  in  widths  from  1  to  4  corrugations  inclusive. 


52 


SAND  PAPER 


Fig.l 


C/  *.^y&~:~-&i/td0ai>*r 


Fig.  2 


/fo/e 


Flg.3 


SAND  PAPER 

Articles  made  of  wood  must  be  perfectly  smooth  before  they 
can  be  stained,  painted  or  varnished.  This  is  usually  done  with 
the  plane  and  scraper  but  often  an  additional  smoothing  is 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  sand  paper. 

Sand  paper  is  a  tough  paper  coated  on  one  side  with  glue 
and  crushed  flint  or  quartz.  This  crushed  flint  resembles  sand. 
The  particles  are  sharp  edged  and  of  irregular  shape  and  quite 
hard.  They  are  graded  in  sizes  000  to  3  by  being  sifted  through 
screens  having  openings  of  different  sizes.  A  thick  glue  is 
applied  to  one  side  of  the  paper  and  the  crushed  flint  sprinkled 
evenly  over  it.  After  this  is  thoroughly  dry  a  second  coat  of 
very  thin  glue  is  applied  over  the  sand  side  to  make  sure  that 
every  particle  is  fastened  to  the  paper. 

In  sand  papering  the  surface  of  hard  wood,  garnet  paper  is 
better  than  flint  paper.  While  the  crystals  are  not  quite  as 
sharp,  they  are  much  harder  and  consequently  wear  better.  It 
is  made  in  the  same  way  as  sand  paper.  Sand"  paper  and  garnet 
paper  are  sold  in  rolls  or  in  sheets. 

When  the  sand  paper  is  rubbed  over  the  surface  of  the 
wood  the  sharp  edges  of  the  flint  or  garnet,  cut  or  comb  down 
the  fibers  of  the  wood.  Since  the  fibers  in  the  wood  run  in  a 
certain  direction,  it  is  very  important  that  the  sand  papering  be 
done  in  the  same  direction,  for,  if  sand  papered  across  the  lines 
of  fiber  the  surface  of  the  wood  will  be  made  rough  instead  of 
smooth. 

To  give  a  true  surface  the  sand  papering  must  be  done  with 
an  even  pressure  over  the  entire  surface.  Otherwise  the  corners 
and  edges  will  be  rbunded.  This  true  surface  can  be  secured 
by  holding  a  small  piece  of  sand  paper  around  a  block  shaped 
as  in  Fig.  1.  The  pressure  of  the  fingers  against  the  slanting 
sides  of  the  block  keeps  the  paper  tightly  stretched. 

Sand  paper  should  always  be  torn,  never  cut,  since  the 
particles  of  flint  would  destroy  the  edge  of  any  knife  or  pair  of 
shears.  In  order  to  tear  it  straight  it  should  be  placed  sand  side 
down  on  a  flat  surface  with  a  rule  or  straight  edge  upon  it  at 


WOOD  FINISHES 


Fig.  Z 


Rg-3 


the  desired  place.  By  holding  the  rule  firmly  in  this  position 
and  pulling  upward  on  the  paper  at  the  corner  marked  X-Fig.  2 
the  result  will  be  accomplished. 

To  smooth  curved  surfaces,  a  piece  of  sand  paper  should  be 
wrapped  about  a  round  stick  as  in  Fig.  3. 

Where  only  a  limited  supply  of  sand  paper  can  be  kept  on 
hand  No.  1  or  No.  1^  will  be  found  suitable  for  practically  all 
purposes. 

WOOD  FINISHES 

"Wood  finish"  is  a  term  used  to  designate  various  substances 
which  are  applied  to  the  surface  of  wood  either  to  color  it  or  to 
protect  and  preserve  it  from  the  elements  which  would  tend  to 
destroy  its  mechanical  properties  as  well  as  its  natural  beauty. 
Wood  finishes  are  divided  into  several  classes,  i.e.,  paint,  stain, 
filler,  varnish  and  wax.  The  application  of  stain  changes  the 
color  of  wood  but  does  not  hide  the  grain,  because  stain  is  trans- 
parent. Paint  changes  the  color  and  also  hides  the  grain ;  in 
other  words,  it  is  opaque.  Filler,  as  the  name  implies,  fills  up 
the  pores  in  the  wood,  making  the  surface  smooth.  Stain  is 
sometimes  combined  with  filler  so  that  with  one  operation  the 
object  is  filled  and  stained.  Varnish  is  applied  to  give  a  hard, 
smooth,  glossy  surface  and  to  keep  out  moisture.  Wax  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  varnish,  giving  the  surface  a  slick  but  not 
as  glossy  a  finish  as  varnish. 

The  use  to  which  an  object  is  to  be  put  and  the  kind  of 
wood  out  of  which  it  is  to  be  made  determine  whether  it  is 
better  to  stain  or  to  paint  it.  Woods  having  prominent  grain  are 
usually  stained  because  of  the  transparency  of  the  coloring  mat- 
ter in  the  stain,  but  to  preserve  the  wood,  stained  articles  should 
also  be  varnished  or  waxed  and  sometimes  filled.  Wood  having 
an  uninteresting  grain  is  usually  painted.  Practically  all  objects 
used  out  of  doors  are  painted  because  the  paint  better  with- 
stands exposure. 

The  principal  ingredients  in  paint  are  white  lead,  linseed 
oil,  coloring  pigment,  turpentine  and  drier.  The  white  lead 
gives  body  and  covering  power  to  the  paint,  the  pigment  colors 


54 


WOOD  FINISHES 


Rg.4 


Sma//  Stain  Brush 


Flat  Varnish,  Stain  »•  Paintbrush 


Round  Varnish  Brush 


it,  the  linseed  oil  furnishes  the  liquid  carriage  which  floats  the 
pigment  and  lead  over  the  surface  and  it  also  acts  as  a  binder 
to  hold  them  onto  the  surface.  The  turpentine  thins  the  mixture 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  applied  with  a  brush  and  the  drier  helps 
to  dry  the  paint  after  it  has  been  applied  to  the  surface.  Paint 
may  be  made  by  mixing  the  above  mentioned  ingredients 
together  or  it  may  be  purchased  ready  mixed.  Since  the  lead 
is  very  heavy,  it  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  container.  The 
paint  should  therefore  be  thoroughly  stirred  before  being  used. 
When  it  is  well  mixed  it  is  applied  to  the  surface  to  be  painted 
with  a  bristle  brush  of  a  size  and  shape  suited  to  the  kind  of 
work.  Fig.  4. 

The  surface  to  be  painted  should  be  previously  smoothed 
with  sand  paper  and  nail  holes  or  small  defects  in  the  wood, 
filled  with  putty.  (See  putty  in  section  on  "Glazing.")  Knots 
should  be  shellaced  to  prevent  the  rosin  from  oozing  out.  Paint 
is  applied  by  dipping  the  fiber  end  of  the  brush  into  the  can  or 
bucket,  allowing  only  a  portion  of  the  fibers  to  enter  the  paint. 
The  brush  should  never  be  allowed  to  go. into  the  paint  up  to 
the  metal  sheath  and  in  no  case  should  the  paint  be  stirred  with 
the  brush.  Even  with  only  a  portion  of  the  fibers  entering  the 
paint  too  much  of  it  will  enter  the  brush.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  excess.  This  should  be  done  by  pressing 
the  fibers  against  the  inside  of  the  container  as  at  A-Fig.  5, 
allowing  the  extra  amount  of  paint  to  run  back.  The  brush 
should  never  be  dragged  over  the  edge  of  the  bucket  as  illus- 
trated in  B-Fig.  5,  for  while  a  large  part  of  the  paint  will  go 
back  into  the  bucket,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  some  of  it 
from  running  down  over  the  outside.  Should  paint  at  any  time 
get  on  the  handle  or  sheath  of  the  brush  it  should  immediately 
be  wiped  clean  with  a  cloth  or  bit  of  waste. 

When  the  brush  is  charged  with  the  proper  amount  of  paint 
it  is  drawn  back  and  forth  over  the  surface  until  the  paint  is 
thoroughly  worked  in  and  spread  evenly  over  the  surface.  There 


STAINS  55 

is  danger,  however,  of  overbrushing  the  paint  and  making  it 
bubble  and  consequently  become  rough. 

Wood,  when  painted  for  the  first  time,  will  require  two  or 
more  coats  in  order  to  cover  it  well,  but  surfaces  which  have 
been  painted  before  are  not  so  porous  and  one  coat  may  suffice. 

Different  formulas  are  used  for  the  making  of  stain  but 
they  are  all  alike  in  that  they  are  all  semi-transparent  and  con- 
tain coloring  matter  which  changes  the  appearance  or  color  of 
wood.  The  coloring  matter  is  dissolved  in  an  easy  flowing 
liquid  which  makes  possible  an  even  distribution  of  the  color 
over  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied.  This  liquid  usually 
evaporates  rather  quickly.  Stain  also  contains  a  "binder,"  a 
substance  which  remains  after  the  liquid  has  evaporated,  and 
holds  the  color  in  the  wood. 

In  selecting  a  stain,  the  material  out  of  which  the  project 
is  made  must  be  considered.  A  soft,  porous  wood  will  take  a 
stain  which  penetrates  slowly,  while  a  close  fibered,  hard  wood 
often  resists  the  most  penetrating  kind  of  stain.  The  natural 
color  of  wood  often  changes  the  appearance  of  a  stain.  A  stain 
which  appears  to  be  of  a  light  golden  color  when  applied  on  oak, 
will  be  so  affected  by  the  greenish  color  of  the  wood  that  it  will 
appear  to  be  a  dull,  dirty  brown  when  applied  to  poplar. 

Stain  should  never  be  applied  too  lavishly.  The  wood  will 
absorb  only  a  certain  amount  which  should  be  of  such  consist- 
ency that  it  flows  and  penetrates  easily.  In  some  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  excess  from  the  stained  surface  with 
waste  or  rags  after  the  stain  has  had  sufficient  time  to  soak  in 
but  this  process  should  not  be  delayed  until  the  liquid  has  fully 
evaporated  because  the  surface  will  become  gummy. 

Surfaces  to  be  stained  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  finger 
marks,  pencil  marks,  grease,  etc.  (see  sections  on  "Planes"  and 
"Sandpaper").  If  the  surface  to  be  stained  has  been  sand- 
papered the  stain  should  not  be  applied  until  the  pores  of  the 
wood  have  had  a  chance  to  reopen.  If  the  stain  is  applied  too 
soon  after  sandpapering  there  is  danger  of  the  pores  being 
clogged  with  the  sandpaper  dust  and  so  closed  and  crushed 
that  they  will  not  allow  the  stain  to  penetrate  deeply  enough 
to  be  permanent. 

Most  stains  settle  in  the  can  because  some  of  the  materials 
in  them  are  heavier  than  others,  consequently  the  container 
should  be  shaken  or  well  stirred  before  the  stain  is  used.  A 
sufficient  amount  of  stain  to  cover  the  project  should  be  poured 
into  an  open  mouthed  can  or  bucket.  Waste  or  cloths  should 
be  at  hand  ready  for  wiping  off  the  surplus  at  the  proper  time. 


56  WOOD  FINISHES 

Papers  should  be  spread  under  the  project  to  be  stained  unless 
there  is  available  a  metal  covered  staining  table  which  can  be 
wiped  clean  after  the  staining  is  done. 

The  brush,  is  charged  with  stain  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
with  paint  and  equal  care  should  be  exercised  in  handling  it, 
especially  since  stain  is  much  thinner  than  paint  and  will  run 
more  easily.  Stain  is  applied  to  the  wood  by  placing  the  brush 
saturated  with  stain  at  one  end  of  the  board  and  drawing  it 
slowly  toward  the  center  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  Fig.  1. 
The  brush  should  be  pulled  over  the  wood  slowly  enough  to 
allow  the  stain  to  soak  in.  When  the  stroke  has  covered  about 
half  the  length  of  the  piece  of  wood  the  brush  should  be  lifted 
and  a  second  stroke  which  slightly  overlaps  the  first,  made,  Fig. 
2.  When  one-half  of  the  surface  has  been  covered  in  this  way  the 
work  should  be  turned  around  and  stained  from  the  other  end 
in  a  similar  manner.  The  brush  should  never  be  rubbed  back 
and  forth  over  the  wood  or  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  wood 
toward  the  edge  or  end  because  the  fibers  will  spatter  the  stain 
as  in  Fig.  3. 

The  brush  should  never  be  laid  down  with  paint,  stain  or 
varnish  in  it  nor  allowed  to  stand  in  any  of  these  materials.  The 
brush  should  never  be  laid  across  the  bucket  from  side  to  side. 
A  small  stick  or  wire  placed  across  the  top  of  the  bucket  as  in 
Fig.  6  makes  a  good  rest  for  the  brush  for  then  if  the  paint,  stain 
or  varnish  should  drip  from  the  brush  it  will  go  back  into  the 
bucket. 

After  all  parts  of  the  project  have  been  painted,  stained  or 
varnished  the  unused  material  in  the  bucket  should  be  poured 
back  into  the  original  container  which  should  be  tightly  closed 
in  order  to  keep  the  contents  from  evaporating.  The  bucket 
should  then  be  wiped  clean  and  bright.  Brushes  should  be 
washed  in  a  solution  similar  to  the  liquid  out  of  which  the 
material  is  made,  i.e.,  turpentine,  for  paint,  varnish  and  oil  stain, 
alcohol  for  spirit  stain  and  water  for  water  stain.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  disposing  of  all  oily  rags,  since  heat  is 
often  generated  in  them,  resulting  in  fire. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  filler,  liquid  and  paste.  Liquid  filler 
is  composed  of  shellac  gum  dissolved  in  alcohol.  Paste  filler  is 
made  of  silex  and  linseed  oil.  Silex  is  a  mineral  which  does  not 
expand  or  contract  under  changing  atmospheric  conditions. 
When  worked  into  the  wood  with  a  brush  stroke  in  the  direction 
of  the  grain  the  sharp  angled  particles  of  silex  anchor  in  every 
crevice.  The  surplus  is  then  wiped  off  and  the  surface  appears 
even  and  smooth.  Liquid  filler  is  also  applied  with  a  brush. 
It  is  thinner  than  paste  filler  and  therefore  will  fill  up  smaller 


VARNISH 


57 


Fig7 


Fig.  6 


crevices.  It  is  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  hard  and  the 
roughness  is  then  rubbed  off  with  fine  sandpaper.  Fillers  are 
always  applied  before  the  wood  is  varnished  and  sometimes 
before  the  wood  is  stained. 

Varnishes  are  made  by  melting  certain  vegetable  gums  and 
then  cooking  them  in  linseed  oil  and  turpentine.  They  have  to 
be  thoroughly  filtered.  They  must  stand  many  months  before 
they  are  ready  to  be  used.  This  is  called  seasoning.  They  are 
applied  in  a  way  similar  to  that  in  which  paint  and  stain  are 
applied  except  that  they  are  floated  onto  the  surface  with  as 
little  brushing  as  possible.  Varnishes  are  very  sticky  and  slow 
drying,  therefore  articles  being  varnished  must  be  kept  in  rooms 
as  near  dust  proof  as  possible.  Varnish  dries  best  in  rooms  mod- 
erately heated.  V 

Finishing  wax  is  used  either  over  stained  surfaces  or  sur- 
faces filled  with  liquid  filler.  It  is  made  of  vegetable  wax  dis- 
solved in  a  liquid  which  evaporates  quickly  after  it  has  been 
applied  to  wood,  leaving  a  thin  scum  of  the  wax  on  the  surface. 
It  is  best  applied  by  taking  a  small  portion  of  the  wax  out  of 
the  can,  placing  it  on  a  double  thickness  of  cloth  and  wrapping 
the  cloth  around  it,  Figs.  7  and  8.  Holding  the  loose  ends  of 
the  pieces  of  cloth  between  the  fingers  and  rubbing  it  over  the 
surface  to  be  waxed  will  force  the  wax  through  the  cloth  a  little 
at  a  time.  When  the  entire  surface  has  been  covered  thus  the 
wax  should  be  allowed  to  dry  and  then  polished  with  a  stiff 
brush  or  cloth.  Wax  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  but  it  is 
wasteful  of  material  and  it  is  hard  to  regulate  the  amount  put 
on  the  surface. 


58 


GLASS  AND  WINDOW  GLAZING 

Of  the  many  materials  used  in  constructive  work,  glass  does 
not  often  attract  much  attention,  nevertheless  its  place  in  the 
world  is  very  important.  Without  it  large  builidngs  would  not 
be  practicable  for  it  is  the  window  glass  that  permits  them  to 
be  lighted  by  day  and  the  glass  light  bulb,  shade  or  chimney 
which  makes  •  possible  their  illumination  at  night.  Even  the 
electric  current  could  not  be  brought  into  a  building  if  it  were 
not  for  the  glass  or  porcelain  insulators.  Science  has  been 
greatly  advanced  by  the  use  'of  glass,  for  the  success  of  the 
microscope,  telescope  and  camera  are  dependent  upon  their 
glass  lenses.  Many  eyes  have  been  saved  and  many  pains  re- 
moved through  the  use  of  spectacles.  Bottles,  dishes,  buttons, 
beads,  door  knobs,  sanitary  hospital  appliances,  mirrors,  etc.,  are 
in  existence  because  of  the  discovery  of  how  to  transform  cer- 
tain elements  into  glass.  Just  when  this  discovery  was  made 
no  one  knows,  but  pieces  of  glass  which  are  over  six  thousand 
years  old  have  been  found  in  Egypt. 

Of  the  entire  amount  of  glass  produced  the  greater  portion  is 
window  glass.  It  varies  in  kind,  quality  and  use.  Very  thin 
glass  (single  strength)  is  used  in  picture  frames,  heavier  glass 
(double  strength)  is  used  in  ordinary  windows,  hot  houses,  hot 
beds  and  cheap  show  cases,  and  very  heavy  glass  (plate  glass) 
is  used  in  large  windows,  in  mirrors  and  in  the  better  grade  of 
show  cases.  Semi-transparent  glass  for  windows  is  produced 
with  different  surfaces,  such  as  frosted  or  ribbed  and  for  sky 
lights  and  elevator  shafts  a  glass  reinforced  with  a  wire  webbing 
is  made. 

While  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  making  of  glass 
are  always  about  the  same,  the  method  of  manufacture  is  entirely 
different.  Ordinary  window  glass  is  blown  by  men  or  by 
machines,  into  cylindrical  forms  and  then  flattened  into  sheets, 
while  plate  glass  is  not  blown,  but  is  rolled  into  sheets  or  plates. 
Glass  is  made  by  fusing  under  intense  heat,  a  mixture  of  soda, 
lime  and  sand.  It  takes  from  fourteen  to  twenty  hours  to  prop- 
erly melt  a  "batch."  For  blown  glass  the  ingredients  are  melted 
together  in  vats  in  huge  furnaces.  When  the  molten  mass  is 
ready,  if  it  is  to  be  blown  by  men,  a  small  portion  of  it  is  dipped 
out,  through  a  door  in  the  furnace,  on  the  end  of  a  blow  pipe. 
The  workman,  to  protect  his  face  from  the  blistering  heat  and 
intense  light  from  the  open  door,  carries  a  mask,  A-Fig.  1,  which 
he  holds  in  place  with  his  teeth.  The  blow  pipe  is  constantly 
revolved  to  keep  the  ball  of  molten  glass  from  falling  off.  This 


GLASS 


59 


Wooden  frame- 


3 


-Colored  g/ass 

-block  he/d 
between  the  tteth 

s^&low  pipe. 


fig.l 


Molten  glass 


mass  weighs  from  twenty  to  forty  pounds  and  as  it  begins  to 
solidify  it  is  twisted  and  turned  over  an  iron  mould  -until  it 
assumes  a  pear  shape,  B-Fig.  1.  It  is  then  passed  on  to  the 
glass  blower  who  stands  by  a  deep  pit  with  the  blow  pipe  and 
glass  ball  suspended  into  the  pit.  Blowing  gently  at  first  he 
swings  the  pipe  back  and  forth  like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock  and 
at  the  same  time  gives  it  a  rotary  motion.  This  gradually 
changes  the  shape  of  the  molten  mass  to  a  long,  hollow  cylinder, 
having  walls  of  even  thickness  at  every  point.  If  the  cylinder 
begins  to  lengthen  too  much  the  blower  swings  the  pipe  and 
glass  over  his  head,  still  blowing  and  revolving  it. 

When  the  desired  length  of  cylinder  and  the  proper  thick- 
ness of  glass  is  obtained  the  far  end  of  the  cylinder  is  reheated 
and  cut  off.  When  the  glass  has  become  firm  enough  it  is 
placed  on  a  wooden  rack  and  the  blow  pipe  loosened  by  touch- 
ing it  with  a  cold  iron.  This  same  end  of  the  cylinder  is  then 
cracked  off  true  by  passing  a  heated  wire  around  it  and  touching 
the  glass  with  a  moistened  finger.  The  cylinder  is  then  opened 
lengthwise  by  passing  a  red  hot  iron  from  end  to  end  down  the 
inside,  Fig.  2. 

This  open  cylinder  is  next  placed  in  an  oven  on  a  flat  stone 
slab.  The  heat  naturally  unrolls  the  glass  and  it  is  pressed  out 
flat  with  a  wooden  block  on  a  long  rod  thrust  through  the  door 
of  the  oven.  When  the  glass  becomes  flat  it  passes  on  to  the 
annealing  oven  where  it  is  gradually  cooled.  If  cooled  too 
quickly  it  becomes  very  brittle.  From  the  annealing  oven  it  is 
inspected,  marked  and  cut  to  various  sizes.  Seldom  is  a  cylinder 
found  without  flaws,  so  the  cutter  cuts  around  the  flaws,  first 
getting  out  the  larger  panes,  then  the  smaller  ones.  The  cutting 
is  done  either  with  an  instrument  having  a  diamond  point  or  a 
highly  carbonized  steel  roller. 

Machine  blown  glass  is  produced  by  the  same  process  except 
that  the  machine  automatically  dips  the  blow  pipe  into  the 
molten  metal,  shapes  it  and  blows  it.  One  man,  attending  a 


60 


GLASS  AND  WINDOW  GLAZING 


Q 


Fig. 


Fig.  4 


glass  blowing  machine,  can  produce  about  three  times  as  much 
glass  as  a  mouth  blower.  Machine  blown  cylinders  are  about 
twenty-five  feet  long  and  two  feet  in  diameter  while  mouth 
blown  cylinders  at  best  never  reach  more  than  ten  or  twelve 
feet  in  length  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  surface  of 
blown  glass  is  glossy  and  smooth. 

The  materials  out  of  which  plate  glass  is  made  are  melted 
together  in  large  clay  crucibles.  When  the  materials  are  prop- 
erly melted  together,  huge  traveling  cranes  pick  up  and  carry 
the  crucible  to  the  plate  glass  machine  where  the  contents  is 
poured  out  on  a  large  metal  table.  A  huge  metal  roller  is  then 
passed  over  it,  flattening  the  mass  into  a  plate  two  or  three 
times  as  thick  as  blown  glass.  The  surface  produced  in  this 
way  is  rough  and  only  semi-transparent.  This  plate  of  glass  is 
then  sent  through  the  annealing  oven,  after  which  it  is  anchored 
onto  a  large  revolving  table  with  plaster  of  Paris  and  the  upper 
surface  ground  off  smooth  and  true  with  sand  stone.  The  glass 
is  then  reversed  and  the  other  side  ground.  After  being  ground 
smooth  the  surface  is  polished  on  revolving  tables  with  revolving 
buffers  and  rouge.  It  is  then  inspected  and  cut  to  standard 
sizes  the  same  as  blown  glass. 

Glass  is  usually  held  in  place  in  windows  in  a  wooden  frame 
called  a  sash,  but  with  the  diminishing  use  of  wood  and  the 
increasing  use  of  metal  it  is  probable  that  in  a  few  years  nearly 
all  window  sashes  will  be  made  of  metal. 

Placing  the  window  glass  in  the  sash  is  called  "glazing." 
If  glass  of  the  correct  size  cannot  be  obtained  it  may  be  cut  to 
fit  by  placing  it  on  a  flat  surface  and,  at  the  proper  place,  scoring 
a  line  with  a  glass  cutter,  Fig.  3,  along  a  straight  edge.  In  doing 
this,  one  should  be  careful  that  the  scored  line  reaches  com- 
pletely from  edge  to  edge.  Enough  pressure  should  be  applied 
to  score  the  line  at  one  operation.  To  try  to  score  the  same  line 
the  second  time  is  apt  to  be  disastrous.  Once  the  glass  is  scored 
it  is  held  in  the  hands,  scored  side  up,  and  cracked  apart  as  in 


GLAZING 


61 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  4.  If  it  fails  to  respond  to  this  treatment,  it  should  be 
lightly  tapped  with  the  handle  of  the  cutter  on  the  under  side 
of  the  glass  near  the  scored  line.  If  any  small  part  fails  to 
break  off  at  the  scored  line,  that  part  is  broken  off  with  the 
glass  cutter  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

To  glaze  a  window  the  sash  is,  if  possible,  removed  and 
placed  rabbeted  side  up,  all  old  putty  and  glass  removed,  and 
the  new  pane  fitted  in  and  fastened  with  glazier  or  zinc  points. 
These  points  are  flat  triangular-shaped  pieces  of  metal  made  of 
zinc  so  that  they  will  not  rust  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 
They  come  in  sizes  0  to  3  inclusive  (0  being  the  larger),  ^-lb. 
to  the  paper,  or  they  can  be  bought  in  bulk.  They  are  laid  in 
place  on  the  glass  and  driven  about  half  way  into  the  sash  with 
any  kind  of  flat  instrument  which  can  be  slid  along  the  glass. 
A  cold  chisel  is  a  good  tool  for  driving  in  these  points.  A  suffi- 
cient number  of  points  are  placed  around  the  sash  to  hold  the 
glass  firmly.  The  glazier  points  and  edges  of  the  glass  are  then 
puttied  over  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  the  putty  knife  being  drawn 
along  the  edge,  forcing  the  putty  into  every  crack  and  crevice. 
The  surface  left  should  be  quite  smooth. 

Putty  is  made  by  mixing  together  whiting  and  boiled  linseed 
oil,  to  the  consistency  of  dough.  The  air  oxidizes  the  oil,  leaving 
the  whiting  almost  as  hard  as  stone.  Since  the  air  hardens  putty 
it  should  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  container  until  needed  for  use. 
If  it  is  too  stiff  to  work  well,  it  may  be  softened  by  simply 
kneading  it  with  the  fingers.  If  this  does  not  soften  enough,  a 
drop  or  two  of  boiled  linseed  oil  may  be  added  and  worked 
into  it. 


62  CHAIR  SEATING 


Section  A- A 

flat        Oval     Hotfroujid  Hound 
Strip    of  cane  wm     <m>      <tm>     % 

Shapes  of  rattan 


CHAIR  SEATING 

Wooden  seated  chairs  are  durable  and  if  properly  shaped 
they  are  comfortable,  but  they  are  heavy  and  sometimes  ugly  in 
appearance.  Various  other  methods  are  used  in  seating  chairs, 
among  them  weaving,  upholstering  and  the  application  of  pre- 
pared seatings. 

There  are  several  ways  of  weaving  seats  in  chairs  and  many 
different  kinds  of  materials  are  used.  Any  material  which  is 
strong,  flexible  and  tough,  and  which  is  made  or  can  be  secured 
in  shapes  convenient  for  weaving,  can  be  used  for  seating  chairs. 
The  commonly  used  materials  are  cane,  rush,  reed,  rope  and 
hickory  split.  Cane,  perhaps,  is  the  most  widely  used.  It  is 
made  from  the  outer  covering  or  bark  of  a  certain  specie  of  palm. 
This  grows  in  dense  forests  in  India,  China,  Ceylon  and  the 
Indian  Islands.  The  plants  sometimes  grow  very  tall  and  then 
fall  to  the  ground,  trailing  like  vines.  They  frequently  reach  a 
length  of  several  hundred  feet  without  a  branch  and  without  de- 
veloping to  a  diameter  of  more  than  one  inch.  The  bark  is  very 
thin  and  its  outer  surface  is  quite  hard  and  slick.  The  woody 
part  grows  in  a  different  way,  and  its  appearance  is  quite  differ- 
ent from  that  of  ordinary  wood.  In  texture  it  is  much  softer 
than  wood  and  is  very  porous  but  much  tougher  than  all  woods 
except  hickory. 

The  vine  like  stems  of  the  plant  are  cut  by  the  natives  into 
lengths  of  ten  to  twenty  feet,  washed,  made  into  bundles  and 
shipped  to  various  European  countries  and  America.  The  bark 
is  then  stripped  off  and  cut  into  varying  widths  from  TV'  to 
TV'  and  tied  into  bundles  or  hanks  of  1,000  lineal  feet.  The  re- 
maining part  is  cut  into  different  shapes  and  sizes,  Fig.  1.  The 
strips  made  from  the  bark  are  known  as  chair  cane  and  the 
material  made  from  the  pith  or  woody  part  is  called  reed  or 
rattan. 


CANING 


63 


Fig  2         I5t  Step 


Under  -s/ofe 

Fig.  3 


2^  Step 


DIAMOND  PATTERN  WEAVING 

There  are  several  ways  of  weaving  the  seat  of  a  chair  with 
cane.  The  most  common  is  the  diamond  pattern.  For  this  kind 
of  weaving  the  chair  seat  must,  first  of  all,  be  prepared.  If  on 
new  work,  holes  •£$"  m  diameter  must  be  bored  around  the  seat 
frame  l/2tf  apart  and  l/2"  away  from  the  inner  edge.  Unless  the 
utmost  care  is  used  in  locating  and  boring  these  holes,  an  im- 
perfect pattern  will  be  the  result  in  the  finished  weaving.  If  an 
old  chair  is  to  be  reseated,  all  of  the  old  cane  must  be  cut  out, 
the  holes  thoroughly  cleared  and  the  seat  frame  washed  and,  if 
need  be,  varnished. 

The  woven  seat  of  a  chair  should  be  quite  tight.  This  is 
chiefly  accomplished  by  having  the  cane  wet  while  weaving  it. 
The  moisture  expands  it  and  after  evaporating  causes  the  cane 
to  stretch  very  tightly.  Fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  is  a  sufficient 
amount  of  time  for  soaking  the  cane.  If  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
water  too  long  it  will  become  discolored  and  also  lose  its  strength. 

About  all  the  equipment  one  needs  in  this  work  is  a  knife 
and  an  awl.  An  awl  can  be  made  out  of  a  long  brad  with  a  piece 
of  wood  for  a  handle.  Several  round  pegs,  about  \y2"  long  and 
tapering  from  y&"  to  l/^"  should  be  whittled  out  of  wood. 

Caning  a  chair  can  be  divided  into  seven  consecutive  steps. 
First  step.  After  soaking  the  cane  as  already  directed,  it  should 
be  held  glossy  side  up,  and  one  end  put  down  through  a  hole 
at  the  back  of  the  chair  seat,  (allowing  it  to  project  about  three 
inches  below  the  seat  frame),  and  fastened  with  a  peg.  The 
other  end  of  the  cane  should  be  inserted  through  a  hole  in  the 
front  of  the  seat  which  is  exactly  opposite  the  starting  hole  in 
the  back..  In  case  a  chair  has  a  round  seat,  unusual  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  holes  exactly  opposite  each  other 
are  used  in  starting  or  the  entire  pattern  will  be  a  failure.  The 
entire  strand  of  cane  should  be  pulled  through  the  hole,  care 
being  taken  to  avoid  getting  kinks  or  twists  in  it,  the  cane  made 


64 


CHAIR  SEATING 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6         4*&ep 


tight  and  a  peg  inserted  to  hold  it  in  place.  This  stretched  strand 
should  be  picked  with  the  fingers  to  test  the  tightness  as  the 
string  of  a  musical  instrument  is  tested.  The  long  end  of  the 
strand  should  then  be  brought  up  through  the  next  hole  and 
across  the  seat,  stretched  and  pegged  and  then  inserted  through 
succeeding  pairs  of  holes  until  the  entire  seat  is  covered  with 
parallel  rows  of  cane  from  front  to  back,  Fig.  2.  After  a  few 
pegs  have  been  inserted,  the  second  peg  (never  the  first)  and 
those  following  it  can  be  removed  and  used  over  again.  When 
one  strand  of  cane  is  used  up,  the  last  hole  through  which  the 
cane  passes  should  be  pegged  and  a  new  strand  started  in  the 
hole  next  to  it.  The  loose  ends  under  the  chair  are  fastened  by 
drawing  them  under  the  nearest  span  on  the  under  side  of  the 
seat  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Second  step.  .Proceeding  as  in  step  one,  parallel  strands  of 
cane  should  be  laid  across  the  chair  seat  from  side  to  side  and 
on  top  of  those  in  the  first  step,  Fig.  4. 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  9 


CANING 


65 


Fig.  10 


"     Fig.  11 


Third  step.  The  strands  of  cane  in  this  step  are  laid  from 
front  to  back  exactly  as  in  the  first  operation,  the  strands  from 
side  to  side  thus  facing  left  between  those  placed  in  the  first  and 
third  steps,  Fig.  5. 

Fourth  step.  The  real  weaving  now  begins  from  side  to 
side.  With  one  hand  below  the  seat  and  the  other  above,  the 
end  of  the  cane,  after  passing  through  a  hole  from  the  bottom 
of  the  seat,  is  forced  between  the  top  and  bottom  strands  of  each 
pair  which  run  from  front  to  back,  in  every  case  passing  under 
the  strands  of  the  first  or  bottom  layer  and  over  the  strands  of 
the  third  layer  of  cane.  At  the  same  time  the  weaver  must  be 
placed  at  the  nearest  side  of  the  strands  which  lie  between  the 
pairs  and  which  run  from  side  to  side,  Fig.  6.  Failure  to  do  this 
will  spoil  the  pattern.  If  the  holes  become  clogged  with  cane  so 
that  the  ends  of  the  strands  will  not  pass  through  easily,  they 
may  be  cleared  by  inserting  the  awl,  but  the  awl  should  only 
separate  and  not  puncture  or  tear  the  cane  in  the  holes  or  it  will 
weaken  the  finished  seat.  After  all  the  strands  of  the  fourth 


Fig.12 


1 

J 

p-pj 

J  [ 

L- 

1  I 

1 

T 

i  r 

1 

3 

1 

i 

1 

3 

T  t 

1 

i 

1  1 

3  r 

Fio.15 


66 


CHAIR  SEATING 


Fig.  16 


Fig.  17 


group  have  been  woven  in,  the  entire  seat  of  cane  should  be 
moistened  and  the  strands  both  ways  shoved  together  in  pairs. 

Fifth  step.  This  step  is  also  a  weaving  step  but  instead  of 
the  weaver  passing  over  one  and  then  under  one  as  in  the  fourth 
passes  first  over  two  and  then  under  two  or  vice  versa,  depends 
on  the  little  pattern  formed  where  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
pairs  cross.  This  diagonal  weaver  should  be  placed  so  that  it 
passes  over  the  pair  which,  when  it  is  pulled  tight,  will  allow  it 
to  remain  in  a  straight  line  sliding  in  the  square  formed  as  in 
Figs.  7  and  8  and  not  as  in  Fig.  9.  Once  the  first  diagonal  is 
correctly  placed  the  others  follow  easily  because  if  the  diagonal 
goes  over  the  strands  stretched  from  front  to  back,  it  will  go 
under  all  strands  stretched  from  side  to  side  or  vice  versa.  All 
diagonals  running  in  one  direction  should  be  woven  in  before 
any  weaving  is  done  with  the  cross  diagonal. 

Sixth  step.  The  cross  diagonals,  which  complete  the  pat- 
tern, Fig.  10,  are  woven  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  first 
diagonals.  If  that  part  of  the  seat  which  has  been  made  is  too 
tight  to  permit  the  weaver  pulling  through  easily,  the  entire 
cane  part  of  the  seat  should  be  sponged. 

Seventh  step.  To  hide  the  holes  and  make  the  edges  of  the 
work  look  neater,  a  binder  of  wide  cane  is  laid  on  as  at  Fig.  11 
and  held  in  place  with  a  piece  of  cane  brought  up  through  a  hole 
on  one  side  of  the  binder  and  down  through  the  same  hole  on 
the  other  side  of  the  binder  and  then  into  the  next  hole  and  into 
each  successive  hole  until  the*  entire  edge  is  covered. 

CANE  WEBBING 

Cane  webbing  is  the  name  applied  to  cane  woven  by  machin- 
ery. It  can  be  purchased  by  the  yard  in  widths  from  8"  to  18" 
increasing  in  units  of  2".  It  can  be  secured  in  the  diamond  or 
plain  pattern,  Fig.  12.  Chairs  caned  with  webbing  do  not  re- 
quire holes  in  the  seat  frame.  Instead  a  groove  }4"  wide  and 


WEAVING 


67 


Fig.  16 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20 


iV'  deep  is  made,  J^"  away  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  seat 
frame.  The  webbing  is  thoroughly  soaked,  preferably  in  hot 
water,  and  then  cut  one-half  inch  larger  all  around  than  the 
shape  formed  by  the  grooves  in  the  seat  frame.  It  is  then  laid 
on  the  seat  frame  and  the  strands  running  parallel  to  the 
grooves,  but  outside  of  them,  are  ravelled  out.  The  cane  is 
placed  so  that  the  lines  of  the  pattern  parallel  the  front  edge  of 
the  chair.  With  a  wedge  slightly  narrower  than  the  groove 
and  a  mallet,  the  ends  of  the  cane  are  forced  into  the  groove, 
first  at  the  front,  then  at  the  back  and  then  at  either  side  and 
last  at  the  corners.  This  temporarily  holds  the  webbing  in 
place,  Fig.  13.  The  loose  ends  of  the  cane  are  then  cut  off  with 
a  chisel  as  in  Fig.  14.  A  heavy  coat  of  glue  is  next  put  into  the 
groove  and  a  spline  shaped  as  at  Fig.  15  and  made  either  of 
wood  or  rattan  is  driven  in.  As  soon  as  the  glue  hardens  this 
kind  of  seat  becomes  very  secure. 

RUSH  SEATING 

In  this  kind  of  weaving  seats  made  of  rope  or  twisted  paper 
are  formed  by  winding  the  material  around  the  upper  part  or 
frame  work  of  the  stool  or  chair  instead  of  inserting  it  through 
holes  made  in  the  seat  frame.  Figs.  16  and  17  show  the  succes- 
sive steps  in  weaving  chair  seats  and  stool  tops  in  this  way. 
Stool  and  chair  seats  are  sometimes  made  in  this  way  of  hemp 
rope  or  heavy  cord.  Rush,  corn  husks,  raffia  and  paper,  if 
twisted  into  cords  or  ropes  of  sufficient  size  and  length,  may 
also  be  used.  To  preserve  them  and  to  keep  them  from  untwist- 
ing, seats  made  of  such  materials  should  be  varnished  with  a 
pliable  varnish  after  they  are  finished. 

BASKET  WEAVE 

Seats  made  of  hickory  splits  or  reed  are  woven  somewhat 
differently.  Splits  are  long,  ribbon  like  strips  of  hickory.  Reed 
has  already  been  described  under  chair  caning.  Like  the  rope 


68 


CHAIR  SEATING 


Tront  fail 


~S/de  rail 


&acA  rail 


Section  from  front  to  back 


Seat  frame 


Fig.  22 


Section  from  front  to  back 


or  fibre  seats,  they  are  bound  around  the  upper  part  of  the  frame. 
Different  patterns  can  be  made  by  changing  the  order  of  weav- 
ing. A  plain  weave  is  made  by  weaving  over  one  and  under  one. 
By  weaving  in  series,  such  as  over  one  and  then  under  three,  a 
different  appearing  pattern  is  produced.  Diagonal  effects  are 
produced  by  the  following  method  of  weaving. 

Strand  No.  1  over  one  then  under  two  then  over  two,  etc. 

Strand  No.  2  over  two  then  under  two  then  over  two,  etc. 

Strand  .No.  3 'under  one  then  over  two  then  under  two,  etc. 

Strand  No.  4  under  two  then  over  two  then  under  two,  etc. 

The  weaving  is  started  by  tacking  one  end  of  the  weaver 
firmly  under  the  edge  of  the  frame  and  then  winding  the  reed, 
rush,  cane  or  splits  around  it  close  together  in  parallel  rows  in 
one  direction,  usually  the  longest  one,  until  the  entire  seat  is 
covered,  Fig.  18.  Since  it  will  be  necessary  for  these  rows  of 
material  to  bend  over  and  under  the  weavers  when  they  are  in- 
serted, they  should  not  be  pulled  very  tight  but  they  should  all 
be  of  uniform  tightness.  The  cross  weavers  cannot  be  laid  as 
close  together  so  after  each  strand  is  woven,  the  round  or  bar 
in  the  seat  is  given  a  single  wrap  with  the  weaver  before  the 
process  is  continued,  B-Fig.  19.  Weaving  a  stool  top  in  this 
manner  produces  a  double  top  and  the  weaving  must  be  watched 
on  the  under  side  as  well  as  on  the  top.  It  can  be  made  much 
more  durable  if  the  center  is  stuffed  with  corn  husks  before  all 
of  the  weaving  is  completed.  If  it  is  difficult  to  force  the  end  of 
the  weaver  through,  a  blade  like  stick  will  separate  the  strands 
permitting  it  to  pass  easily. 

If  the  double  top  is  not  desired,  a  single  thickness  top- taking 
only  a  little  more  than  half  the  amount  of  material  used  in  the 
double  top  can  be  made,  provided  there  are  two  rails  on  each 


UPHOLSTERING 


69 


Fig.Z3 


Fig.Z4 


B 


side  and  end  of  the  stool.  Instead  of  the  material  being  wound 
around  and  around  it  is  taken  across  the  top,  down  on  the  out- 
side of  the  second  rail,  up  between  the  two  rails,  over  the  top 
one  and  across  to  the  other  side  of  the  stool  where  the  operation 
is  repeated.  Fig.  20. 

Stools  or  chairs  seated  with  reed  appear  fuzzy  because  small 
threads  of  the  fibre  pull  loose.  The  largest  ones  of  these  should 
be  clipped  off  with  scissors  and  the  smaller  ones  singed  with  a 
lighted  paper  or  candle.  The  reed  burns  and  scorches  easily, 
therefore  this  singeing  should  be  done  quickly. 

UPHOLSTERING 

Upholstering  a  seat  is  an  entirely  different  task.  That  the 
materials  which  can  be  used  are  so  many  and  varied,  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  our  furniture  today  is  uphol- 
stered. The  ease  and  comfort  of  an  upholstered  chair  may  also 
be  in  part  responsible. 

The  tools  needed  for  simple  upholstery  work  are  scissors, 
knife,  tack  hammer,  awl  and  stretcher.  The  materials  used  are 
webbing,  springs,  canvass,  cotton,  curled  hair,  tacks  (both  round 
and  upholstering),  staples,  gimp,  cord  and  covering  materials 
such  as  fabrics,  leather  or  imitation  leather. 

The  frame  work  of  the  chair  or  stool,  if  it  is  to  contain 
springs,  should  consist  of  a  box  deep  enough  to  hold  the  springs. 
This  may  be  a  part  of  the  chair  or  it  may  be  a  separate  box, 
upholstered  and  set  in  the  chair  frame.  If  the  tops  of  the  legs 
project  into  the  box,  it  will  be  necessary  to  glue  and  nail  in 
corner  blocks  to  which  the  upholstering  can  be  tacked,  A-Fig.  21. 
Springs  come  in  heights  from  three  to  sixteen  inches.  The  box 
should  be  half  as  deep  as  the  springs  are  high.  If  the  box  of 


70 


CHAIR  SEATING 


Fig.  25 


the  chair  is  deep  enough  to  allow  slats  of  wood  to  be  nailed  in 
it  to  hold  the  springs,  it  makes  a  more  substantial  seat,  Fig.  21. 
If  there  is  not  enough  room  for  the  wooden  slats,  double  strips 
of  webbing  are  stretched  across  and  nailed  to  the  frame  with 
staples.  Staples  will  hold  a  group  of  threads  running  the  long 
way  of  the  webbing,  while  tacks  will  only  separate  the  threads 
and  force  all  the  strain  upon  the  cross  threads.  Fig.  22  shows 
the  under  side  of  a  chair  seat  with  webbing  in  place  ready  for 
the  springs. 

A  sufficient  number  of  springs  should  be  selected  to  hold  the 
seat  covering  up.  The  number  needed  will  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  seat  box.  If  possible  the  springs  should  be  placed  at 
about  equal  distances  in  from  the  edge  of  the  seat  box.  If 
wooden  slats  are  used  the  springs  are  fastened  to  them  with  wire 
staples.  If  the  bottom  is  made  of  webbing,  the  springs  are 
sewed  to  it  with  heavy  cord,  each  spring  being  fastened  in  about 
four  places.  After  the  springs  are  securely  fastened  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  seat,  the  tops  of  the  springs  are  tied  together  with 
strong  cord  as  indicated  in  Fig.  23.  Wherever  the  cord  crosses 
a  spring  or  another  section  of  the  cord,  the  two  are  tied  together 
to  prevent  wear.  The  ends  of  the  cords  are  then  fastened  to  the 
top  of  the  seat  frame  with  staples. 

Before  fastening  these  cords  the  springs  should  be  pressed 
down  slightly  so  that  after  the  cords  are  fastened  the  released 
springs  will  stretch  them  tight. 

Next,  a  piece  of  heavy  burlap  several  inches  larger  than  the 
seat  is  spread  over  the  springs  and  tacked  to  the  top  edge  of  the 
box  with  four  ounce  tacks.  This  burlap  should  be  stretched 
smooth  but  not  so  tight  as  to  further  compress  the  springs.  As 
all  of  the  pull  should  come  on  the  cord  it  will  be  easier  to  get 


PREPARED  SEATINGS  71 

this  burlap  smooth  if  it  is  stretched  over  the  springs  and  tacked 
as  at  A-Fig.  24  and  then  folded  back,  B-Fig.  24  and  again  tacked. 
This  will  also  make  a  stronger  fastening  for  the  burlap. 

The  stuffing,  either  tow,  dried  sea  moss,  hair,  shredded 
husks  or  other  similar  material,  which  can  be  arranged  to  form 
a  bulky,  springy  mass,  is  next  separated  sufficiently  to  make  it 
fluffy  and  placed  in  a  layer  over  the  entire  top.  In  fluffing  this 
material  it  should  be  kept  in  one  large  mass  and  in  no  case  used 
in  small  balls  or  wads.  This  layer  of  stuffing  should  be  of  uni- 
form thickness  and  it  should  extend  slightly  over  the  edge  of 
the  seat  box. 

A  light  weight  burlap  is  next  spread  over  the  top  and  "slip 
tacked"  (tacks  driven  in  only  part  way  so  that  they  can  easily 
be  pulled  out)  with  a  few  tacks  on  each  side.  The  stuffing 
should  be  pushed  back  a  little  during  this  operation,  but  the 
closer  to  the  edge  of  the  box  it  comes,  the  better  will  be  the  fin- 
ished seat.  The  corners  of  this  piece  of  burlap  will  have  to  be 
cut  away  around  the  corner  posts  but  it  must  fit  as  snugly  as 
possible.  With  the  regulator,  a  long,  sharp  wire  or  needle,  the 
stuffing  may  be  shifted  from  one  point  to  another  by  inserting 
the  point  of  the  tool  down  through  the  burlap  and  moving  the 
stuffing  with  a  prying  motion,  Fig.  25. 

The  upholstering  material  should  be  carefully  cut  to  size 
and  shape  and  placed  smoothly  over  the  padded  seat.  If  it  is  a 
material  which  ravels  easily,  the  edge  should  be  turned  under  as 
it  is  tacked  on.  This  top  covering  should  be  brought  down  over 
the  edge  as  at  A-Fig.  26.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  tacked 
edge  is  straight  and  parallel  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  box.  The 
edge  of  the  upholstering  is  covered  with  a  gimp  binding  which 
harmonizes  with  it  in  texture,  quality  and  color.  This  binding  is 
tacked  in  place  with  upholstering  tacks  which  are  also  of  a 
color  and  kind  in  keeping  with  the  covering  material.  These 
tacks  should  be  evenly  spaced  apart.  The  gimp  binding  must  be 
carefully  folded  when  it  is  put  around  the  corner  posts  and  se- 
curely tacked  in  place  into  the  corner  blocks. 

PREPARED  SEATINGS 

Prepared  seats  can  be  secured  in  varying  shapes  and  sizes 
to  suit  different  kinds  of  chairs.  They  are  made  of  embossed 
leather,  of  imitation  leather  (made  of  paper),  and  of  wood  ve- 
neer. They  are  tacked  around  the  edge  of  the  opening  in  the 
seat  frame  with  fancy  headed  upholstering  tacks.  The  heads  of 
these  tacks  are  made  in  different  shapes  and  they  can  be  secured 
in  brass,  black  metal  or  leather  covered. 


72 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Before  any  object  can  be  constructed  in  material  there  must 
be  an  idea  or  plan.  First  comes  the  mental  picture  and  after  that 
the  picture  reproduced  on  paper.  This  reproduction  on  paper 
can  assume  many  forms.  If  it  is  a  picture  of  the  object  as  it 
will  appear  when  made,  it  is  called  a  perspective  drawing,  Fig.  1. 
It  may  be  a  free  hand  orthographic  sketch  showing  the  dimen- 
sions, such  as  Fig.  2;  it  may  be  a  more  carefully  made  ortho- 
graphic drawing  on  cross  section  paper,  Fig.  3,  or  an  ortho- 
graphic drawing  mechanically  made,  Fig.  4,  or  an  isometric 
drawing  with  dimensions  as  in  Fig.  5. 

The  first  type,  perspective,  is  of  little  use  to  the  workman 
since  from  it  he  only  gets  the  picture  of  the  thing  to  be  con- 
structed, but  the  other  forms  of  drawing  give  all  the  shapes  and 
sizes  of  all  the  pieces  entering  into  the  construction.  There  is 
hardly  an  occupation  which  is  not  touched  by  the  working 
drawing.  Plans  for  houses,  bridges,  parks,  railways,  etc.,  must 
be  made  before  construction  can  begin.  Designs  for  furniture, 
cabinet  work,  automobiles,  boats,  railway  coaches,  lighting  fix- 
tures, plumbing,  electric  wiring,  etc.,  are  necessary  before  they 
can  be  made  or  .assembled.  In  fact  drawing  is  a  language  under- 
stood by  all  people,  it  is  easily  interpreted  and  easily  used  by 
any  one  who  can  devote  a  little  time  and  study  to  it. 

The  first  step  in  making  a  working  drawing  of  an  object  is 
the  rough  sketch.  Its  aim  is  to  quickly  put  on  paper  the  idea 
or  mental  picture  one  has  of  the  object.  Since,  when  working 
in  material,  only  one  surface  can  be  worked  upon  at  a  time,  the 
easiest  kind  of  a  drawing  to  read  is  the  orthographic  drawing. 
Fig.  6  shows  a  rough  .sketch  of  a  stool.  If  one.  has  j^ad  enough 
experience  in  constructing  furniture  to  establish  good  propor- 
tion and  correct  sizes  for  the  various  parts,  this  rough  sketch  is 
all  that  is  necessary.  Figures  added  to  the  drawing  suggesting 
the  size  of  each  part  permanently  retain  the  dimensions  decided 
upon.  If,  however,  one  is  not  sure  that  the  mental  picture  is  of 
good  proportion,  rather  than  spoil  the  material  in  experimenting 
as  well  as  wasting  time,  a  more  complete  drawing,  such  as  Fig.  7, 
can  be  made  with  a  straight  edge  on  cross  section  paper.  In 
case  the  object  is  too  large  to  be  drawn  full  size  on  the  paper  it 
is  drawn  smaller  than  the  object  itself  but  in  exactly  the  same 
proportion.  If  the  drawing  is  half  size  and  the  length  of  the 
top  board  is  fourteen  inches,  the  drawing  of  the  top  board  is 
made  only  seven  inches ;  in  other  words,  each  inch  on  the  draw- 
ing represents  two  inches  in  the  finished  object.  This  is  called 
drawing  to  scale  and  in  this  example  it  is  written — Scale  1"=2". 


THE  LAYOUT 


73 


Fig.  1 


Fig.Z 


f~* 

Mu 


74 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


t\     .     Q 

ng.  o 

6 

o 
-r- 

o 

0 
—  t— 

o 

fc 

••'• 

Rg.9 

10" 

• 



SJ« 

]                     L 

:: 

•^L-j 

j                     \ 

1  — 

It  is  possible  in  this  way  to  work  out  the  size  and  proportion  of 
every  detail  no  matter  how  complicated,  how  large  or  how  small. 

To  make  a  mechanical  drawing  of  an  object,  first  the  rough 
sketch  is  made,  such  as  Fig.  8,  with  the  approximate  size  of 
each  piece  indicated.  Next  the  mechanical  layout  is  made,  Fig.  9. 
Here  the  exact  proportions  are  !  worked  out.  If  the  original  sug- 
gestions for  dimensions  are  found  to  be  wrong  they  are  changed 
in  this  layout.  The  lines  of  the  layout  are  lightly  drawn  in 
pencil  so  that  in  case  the  proportion  is  wrong,  they  can  be  easily 
erased,  or  if  they  are  very  lightly  drawn  they  may  be  left  on 
the  paper.  These  light  lines  are  called  construction  lines.  Once 
this  skeleton  of  light  lines  is  made  and  the  correct  proportion 
established,  the  lines  representing  the  visible  edges  of  the  object 
are  made  heavier,  Fig.  10.  Next  the  lines  representing  edgefe 
which  are  known  to  be  there  but  which  are  hidden  by  some  parlt 
of  the  object,  are  also  made  heavier.  To  show  the  difference 
between  the  visible  edge  and  the  hidden  edge,  the  hidden  edge  is 
made  up  of  a  series  of  dashes  with  spaces  between  equal  to 
about  one-third  the  length  of  the  dash.  The  length  of  these 
dashes  and  the  spaces  between  them  is  not  always  the  same, 
but  their  proportionate  length  is  always  the  same.  In  large 
drawings  the  dashes  are  quite  long  while  in  small  drawings  or 
parts  of  drawings  they  are  very  short.  The  width  of  the  line 
representing  the  hidden  edge  is  always  the  same  and  it  should 
be  of  the  same  width  as  the  visible  edge  line. 

The  next  step  in  making  the  drawing  is  placing  the  dimen- 
sion lines  and  dimensions.  The  dimensions  should,  if  possible, 
be  placed  half  way  between  views.  This  will  save  placing  dupli- 
cated dimensions  on  the  drawing.  Dimension  lines  and  figures 
make  a  drawing  look  complicated,  therefore  they  should 
be  added  only  when  necessary.  They  should  always  be  placed 
below  or  to  the  right  of  the  drawing  except  when  placed 
between  views  or  in  a  case  where  a  part  is  too  far  removed  to 
be  readable  if  the  dimensions  were  placed  below.  Since  dimen- 


DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS 


75 


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3     pi 

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Fig.  10 

Construction    line 

(J 

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4                       j£ 

11 

Line  representing    o  visible  edge 

1!-  ,. 

iJ 

Line  represent/no  Q  hidden  edge 

—  1-—  < 

1-  — 

Dimension    lint 

!  M  i 

2-   H--T—  JTT-T^-I 

N        -a__              S»J             -S          >n 

—  rtrit 

T     1     i    !:       i  1 

x|       --^  I          x^l           --*1           ™ 

Taulty  arrow  heads 

sion  lines  and  figures  make  'a  drawing  look  complicated  it  is 
essential  that  they  be  subordinate  to  the  drawing.  Therefore 
dimension  lines  should  be  only  slightly  heavier  than  construe^ 
tion  lines,  the  arrow  heads  on  the  ends  of  the  lines  showing 
from  where  the  measurements  are  taken  should  be  small,  pointed 
and  not  too  black,  and  the  figures,  while  distinct,  should  be  of 
medium  size.  In  case  the  dimensions  are  indicated  with  frac- 
tions, the  lines  separating  the  numerators  and  denominators 
should  be  aligned  with  the  dimensions  lines.  Fig.  11  shows  the 
standard  lines  and  their  uses. 

In  case  the  drawing  is  to  be  a  permanent  record,  pencil 
lines  are  not  good  as  they  will  smudge  with  usage.  If  the 
drawing  is  not  to  be  handled  too  much  it  may  be  made  perma- 
nent enough  by  inking  in  the  parts  to  be  retained  and  leaving 
the  construction  lines  in  pencil.  When  a  drawing  is  to  receive 
severe  usage  a  tracing,  an  ink  drawing  on  transparent  paper  or 
cloth,  is  made  from  the  original  drawing  and  from  this  tracing 
blue  prints  are  made.  This  also  makes  possible  a  quick  way  of 
producing  a  number  of  copies  of  the  drawing.  The  blue  print  is 
different  from  the  original  drawing  or  tracing  in  that  the  parts 
which  were  black  on  the  original  are  white  on  the  blue  print 
and  the  background  is  blue  instead  of  white. 

The  instruments  used  in  making  mechanical  drawings,  Fig. 
12,  are  the  drawing  board,  the  tee  square,  45-degree  angle,  30 
and  60-degree  angle,  scale,  compass,  curve  and  inking  pen.  A 
hard  pencil  is  usually  used  in  laying  out  the  drawing  and  a  soft 
pencil  for  strengthening  the  lines.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the 
pencils  be  kept  pointed  and  sharp  at  all  times.  Figs.  13  and  14 
show  the  method  of  sharpening  and  correctly  pointing  the 
pencil.  The  pencil  should  always  be  pointed  on  the  end  farthest 
away  from  the  lettering  or  grade  mark.  Thumb  tacks  are  used 
to  hold  the  paper  in  place  when  drawing  upon  it.  As  the  name 
indicates,  they  are  tacks  designed  to  be  pushed  in  with  the 
thumb,  never  pounded. 


76 


MECHANICAL   DRAWING 


Fig.  1Z 


$0-60' Angle 
Tee  Square 


45  Angle 

m         ^  Cur  re 


Thumb  Tack 


5cc7/e 


*%&** 


To  draw  a  free  hand  pencil  line  the  pencil  should  be  held 
loosely  in  the  hand  as  in  Fig.  15.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
pencil  lays  back  in  a  position  similar  to  that  used  in  writing. 
In  drawing  mechanical  lines,  lines  guided  by  a  straight  edge,  the 
pencil  should  be  held  more  nearly  erect  as  in  Fig.  16,  with  the 
balls  of  the  first  and  second  fingers  and  the  thumb  holding  the 
pencil  near  the  point.  The  weight  of  the  hand  is  applied  to  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers  as  the  hand  is  drawn  along.  This  makes 
possible  a  control  of  the  pressure  on  the  pencil  point  and  regu- 
lates the  strength  of  the  line  being  drawn.  The  position  of  the 
left  hand  in  holding  the  straight  edge  securely  while  the  line 
is  being  drawn  and  the  manner  of  getting  the  point  of  the  pen- 
cil against  the  lower  part  of  the  straight  edge,  should  also  be 
noted. 

Horizontal  lines,  lines  running  from  left  to  right  on  the 
paper,  are  drawn  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  tee  square.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  head  of  the  tee  square  should 
always  be  held  firmly  against  the  left  edge  of  the  drawing  board. 
Unless  this  is  done  lines  drawn  along  its  edge  will  not  be 
parallel.  To  draw  vertical  or  oblique  lines,  the  triangle  neces- 
sary to  give  the  straight  edge  or  proper  angle,  is  placed  against 
the  upper  edge  of  the  tee  square  and  both  are  held  in  position 


Fig.  13 


Fig.14 


STRAIGHT  LINES 


77 


fig- 15 


as  in  Fig.  17,  while  the  line  is  drawn  along  the  edge,  Fig.  18. 
Unless  the  head  of  the  tee  square  is  held  firmly  against  the 
end  of  the  drawing  board,  the  lines  drawn  along  the  angle  will 
not  be  in  the  direction  desired.  (It  is  very  essential  that  the 
paper  be  fastened  to  the  board  with  the  thumb  tacks  so  that 
its  edge  is  parallel  to  the  blade  of  the  tee  square.)  If  lines  other 
than  45,  30  or  60  degrees  are  desired,  combinations  of  two 
angles  over  the  tee  square  may  be  made,  Figs.  19  and  20.  It 
is  extremely  difficult  to  hold  the  angles  and  tee  square  in  these 
combinations. 

To  make  sure  that  a  line  is  continuous,  or  that  it  will  pass 
through  a  given  dot,  the  pencil  should  be  placed  on  the  dot  or 
line,  the  tee  square  or  angle  pushed  up  against  it  and  the  line 
drawn.  Figs.  21  and  22  show  the  two  stages  in  drawing  such 
lines.  Mechanical  lines  are  always  drawn  from  left  to  right. 

Circular  lines  are  made  with  a  compass.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  compasses  but  each  performs  the  same  kind  of  work. 
The  less  expensive  kind,  A-Fig.  23,  is  made  of  steel  and  nickle 
plated.  It  has  a  stationary  steel  centering  point  and  an  ordi- 
nary pencil  or  pen  for  the  drawing  point.  A  better  grade  of 
compass,  B-Fig.  23,  is  made  of  German  silver.  It  is  much  more 
durable  and  is  susceptible  to  finer  adjustments,  consequently 


Fig.  17 


Fig.  18 


78 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Fig.  19 


Fig.ZO 


better  results  in  drawing  can  be  obtained,  with  it.  It  has  an 
adjustable  centering  point,  the  joint  at  the  junction  of  the  two 
legs  is  adjustable  and  each  leg  is  jointed.  The  pencilling  and 
inking  points  are  interchangeable,  being  detached  below  the 
knee  joint  on  the  drawing  leg  of  the  compass.  The  lead  in  the 
pencilling  point  is  contained  in  a  metal  holder  while  the  inking 
point  has  two  nibs  with  an  ink  chamber  between  instead  of  one 
nib  with  an  ink  pocket  underneath  as  in  the  ordinary  pen.  The 
points  of  the  compass  are  set  over  the  scale  as  in  Fig.  24,  care 
being  taken  that  the  distance  betwen  the  centering  point  and 
the  drawing  point  is  exactly  one-half  the  length  of  the  diameter 
of  the  circle  to  be  drawn,  in  other  words,  the  distance  between 
these  points  is  the  radius.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  mutilate 
the  markings  on  the  scale  in  setting  the  compass. 

To  draw  a  line  with  the  compass  the  centering  point  is 
placed  on  the  paper  where  the  center  of  the  circle  is  to 
be,  and  the  knob  of  the  compass  held  between  the  second  ringer 
and  thumb  as  in  Fig.  25.  The  knob  is  then  twirled  or  rolled 
between  that  finger  and  the  thumb  until  it  comes  between  the 


Fig  Zl 


FigZZ 


CURVED  LINES 


79 


Fig.  23 


Rg.Z4 


first  finger  and  thumb,  Fig.  26.  The  result  will  be  a  complete 
circle,  made  by  the  drawing  point. 

Irregular  shapes  are  drawn  along  the  edge  of  a  curve  as 
shown  in  Fig.  27.  That  part  of  the  curve  is  selected  which  gives 
the  shape  which  will  pass  through  two  or  more  points  on  the 
drawing  and  the  lines  drawn  around  it  as  along  the  straight 
edge  of  the  angles  or  tee  square.  In  case  no  one  part  of  the 
curve  gives  the  desired  shape,  the  curve  may  be  shifted  and 
different  parts  of  it  used.  Fig.  28  shows  how  the  curve  is 
shifted  three  times  to  produce  the  desired  line. 

The  ruling  pen,  Fig.  30,  is  handled  in  a  similar  way  to  the 
pencil.  The  pen  should  be  held  as  near  perpendicular  as  pos- 
sible. A-Fig.  32  shows  the  correct  side  position  of  the  pen  in 
relation  to  the  straight  edge.  B-Fig.  32  shows  an  incorrect  posi- 
tion which  would  produce  a  blotted  line,  and  C-Fig.  32  an 
incorrect  position  which  would  produce  a  ragged  line.  The  set 
screw  should  be  held  on  the  side  away  from  the  straight  edge. 
Loosening  the  set  screw  allows  the  nibs  to  separate ;  tightening 
it  closes  up  the  space  between  the  nibs.  The  wider  the  space 


Fig  25 


Flg.  26 


80 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Fig.Z/ 


Fig.  26 


between  the  nibs,  the  broader  will  be  the  line  produced.  The 
nibs  should  never  be  brought  together  tightly  because  their 
points  may  be  damaged.  If,  when  inking  a  drawing,  the  ink  on 
the  line  has  a  tendency  to  slide  over  some  spots  and  settle  in 
pools  in  others,  the  paper  should  be  dusted  lightly  with  powdered 
chalk  or  talcum  powder.  Lines  are  always  drawn  from  left  to 
right.  The  pen  is  filled  with  water  proof  ink  to  about  one-third 
its  capacity  by  dipping  the  quill,  which  is  in  the  cork  of  the 
bottle,  into  the  ink  and  then  inserting  it  between  the  blades  of 
the  pen  at  the  ink  chamber,  Fig.  31.  The  inking  point  of  the 
compass  is  filled  in  the  same  way. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  hold  the  inking  point  of  the  compass 
perpendicular  when  drawing  with  it.  For  this  reason  a  two 
nibbed  inking  point  can  be  used  only  in  a  compass  having  jointed 
legs  as  at  Fig.  33.  Inking  pens  should  be  kept  thoroughly 
clean.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  always  wiping  the  points 
with  a  linen  cloth  or  a  bit  of  chamois  skin.  Linen  and  chamois 
are  best  because  they  absorb  the  ink  easily  and  leave  little  or 
no  ink  on  the  pen.  Ink  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the 
pen. 

Good  lettering  is  essential  to  the  appearance  of  a  mechanical 
drawing.  Only  continued  practice  will  enable  one  to  become 


Fig.  29 


Fig.30 


Fig-31 


LETTERING 


81 


Fig.  33 


proficient  in  lettering.  The  study  of  lettering  should  be  ap- 
proached, first  by  becoming  familiar  with  letter  structure,  to 
see  how  each  letter  is  designed.  The  next  step  is  to  be  able 
to  produce  the  letter  forms  and  work  them  into  word  and  sen- 
tence combinations,  and  then  to  acquire  speed  in  making  the 
letters  without  lowering  the  standard  acquired  when  making  the 
letters  slowly.  Simple  Roman  letters  are  best  suited  for  all 
forms  of  mechanical  drawing.  The  letters  are  sometimes  made 
slanting  and  sometimes  vertical,  depending  on  the  taste  of  the 
individual  or  the  practice  in  the  drafting  room  where  the  let- 
tering is  done.  Figs  34,  35  and  36  show  both  styles,  also  the 
shape  and  proportion  of  both  capitals  and  small  letters,  and 
the  number  of  strokes  necessary  to  their  completion,  and 
the  direction  of  each.  One  should  make  a  number  of  copies 
of  these  standard  letters  in  order  to  familiarize  himself  with 
their  proper  shape,  size  and  spacing,  before  attempting  to  form 
them  into  words.  The  letters  should  at  first  be  made  about 
"  high,  then,  after  the  shapes  and  proportions  are  learned, 


the  size    reduced    to    J4"    high    and    finally    to 


Fig.    37. 


It  is  best  to  begin  by  drawing  the  capitals  first  and  after  skill 
is  acquired  in  executing  them,  the  small  letters  should  be  studied 
and  drawn.  The.  illustrations  throughout  this  book  show  numer- 
ous examples  of  single  stroke,  free  hand  lettering.  When  the 
slanting  style  is  used,  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  slant  of  all 
upright  lines  be  the  same. 

It  is  much  easier  to  learn  the  structure  of  the  letters  by 
studying  them  in  groups  according  to  structural  details  rather 
than  in  alphabetical  sequence.  While  certain  standard  propor- 
tions can  be  set  up,  no  unalterable  rule  can  be  established  con- 
cerning these  proportions.  The  appearance  of  each  letter  is 
influenced  by  the  letter  placed  next  to  it.  Unless  this  is  taken 
into  account  and  some  letters  widened  and  some  narrowed  as 


82 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


LETTERING 


83 


84 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


in  Fig.  38  the  line  of  lettering  will  appear  uninteresting,  no 
matter  how  well  each  letter  is  made".  While  certain  combina- 
tions of  letters  can  be  sighted  as  examples  of  lettering,  the 
proportions  of  which  must  be  modified  when  used  together,  only 
experience  and  practice  will  tell  just  where  and  how  much  of  a 
change  should  be  made.  Cross  section  paper  makes  the  study 
of  letter  structure  easier  but  it  should  be  used  only  until  one 
has  become  familiar  with  the  structure,  as  the  squares  are  apt 
to  become  a  hindrance  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  modify  the 
proportion  of  some  of  the  letters.  When  drawing  on  plain  paper, 
mechanically  made  parallel  guide  lines  for  the  top  and  bottom 
of  each  line  of  lettering  should  be  very  lightly  drawn,  but 
all  other  lines  should  be  made  free  hand.  The  complete 
line  of  lettering  should  first  be  blocked  in,  Fig.  39,  to  insure 
correct  distribution  and  proportion  and  then  the  lines  to  be 
retained  strengthened.  Each  line  should  be  made  with  a  single 
stroke.  Touching  up  an  error  in  a  line  usually  makes  it  wider 
and  consequently  more  noticeable. 

.  Blue  prints  from  tracings  are  made  in  a  blue  print  frame. 
It  consists  of  a  frame  holding  a  pane  of  glass.  The  back  of  the 
frame  is  detachable  and  is  held  in  place  against  the  glass  with 
springs.  The  tracing,  whether  it  be  on  tracing  paper  or  tracing 
cloth,  is  placed  in  the  frame  with  the  front  against  the  glass. 
The  sensitized  side  of  a  piece  of  blue  print  paper  is  placed 
against  the  tracing  and  the  back  of  the  frame  clamped  in  place. 
The  frame  is  placed  in  the  sun  long  enough  to  allow  the  light 
rays  to  chemically  change  the  ingredients  in  the  coating 
on  the  paper,  the  amount  of  time  needed  depending  upon 
the  strength  of  the  light,  the  age  of  the  paper  used 
and  the  transparency  of  the  tracing  paper  or  cloth.  In 
order  to  avoid  waste  of  time  and  material  in  determining  the 
amount  of  time  needed  to  secure  the  proper  tone  on  the  blue 


BLUE  PRINTS  85 


LL  1  1  LKS   SHOULD  MK5T  I 

JC    l5L(JLI\tL)    IIM   AINU    IMtlM   Jl  KL(N(j  1  IILNtlJ 

It   /3   io/77  f  'u  'm  f  J>     nFc^s^Gf 

v    To    /^Esncfce    o   wos~cf    o/~  two 

nry  Tib  fesoaee    a  word  or  Two 

.  L         'n;     j   v-,^   . 

All  vipnjjhw  lincsj  MILSL  /)€ 

omwjf  in  Lftffi  &&JKSZjuI£S£fJQ£l. 

1      !     '"'       i     /  |\*    /.'        |;  '" 
i 

print  paper,  a  simple  test  can  be  made  as  follows :  after  placing 
the  tracing  in  the  frame  as  instructed  above,  a  strip  of  blue  print 
paper  about  I;^>"x6"  is  placed  in  position  in  the  frame  and  the 
back  of  the  frame  clamped  down.  A  piece  of  light  proof  card- 
board should  be  held  over  the  front  of  the  frame  and  the 
frame  placed  at  a  proper  angle  to  receive  the  most  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  The  cardboard  should  then  be  moved 
down,  exposing  about  a  half  inch  of  the  blue  print  paper. 
In  fifteen  seconds  the  cardboard  should  again  be  moved  down 
another  half  inch.  After  retaining  this  position  for  fifteen  sec- 
onds, the  process  should  be  repeated  until  the  end  of  the  strip 
of  paper  is  reached.  The  result  is  that  the  last  section  will  have 
been  exposed  only  fifteen  seconds  while  the  first  will  have  been 
exposed  three  minutes.  This  test  strip  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  in  water  and  carefully  studied  to  see  which  section  pro- 
duces the  most  intense  blue  and  clearest  white.  If,  by  counting 
down  from  the  end  last  exposed,  the  number  of  sections  to  this 
clearest  one,  it  is  found  that  the  best  result  was  obtained  in 
the  third  section,  forty-five  seconds  will  be  needed ;  if  the  sixth 
section  appears  best,  a  one  and  one-half  minute  exposure  will  be 
required  to  produce  a  like  result. 

Blue  prints  will  fade  unless  thoroughly  washed,  preferably 
in  pure,  moving  water.  Five  minutes  under  such  conditions  is 
sufficient  to  develop  the  color  and  fix  the  chemicals. 

Most  blue  print  paper  made  now  is  coated  by  machinery 
and  results  attained  with  it  are  much  more  satisfactory  than  can 
be  secured  with  hand  coated  paper.  The  principal  ingredients 
which  go  into  the  making  of  the  coating  solution  are  citrate  of 
iron  and  ammonia,  and  red  prussiate  of  potash. 

This  solution  must  be  applied  to  the  paper  in  a  room  where 
the  natural  light  is  excluded.  The  coating  solution  is  not  sen- 
sitive to  amber  or  ruby  light.  In  large  architects'  offices  and 


86 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Fig.40 


Cutting    Bill 


A  Top          IpcfxIZ'x    14 

£>  5hel/         I  -  *XIO"X    12" 

C  Legs       4  -  ^x  2ix2'6' 

D  Back  Rail   f  »  TX  l*"x   12' 

E  Side  Rails  2-  fx  i*"x    7" 


Mill    bill 


Piece 


mechanical  drafting  rooms,  blue  printing  is  done  with  blue  print- 
ing machines  in  which  the  electric  arc  light  furnishes  the  light 
rays  which  change  the  color  of  the  paper. 

READING  BLUE  PRINTS 

When  a  drawing  is  made  of  an  object  the  three  views,  top, 
front  and  end  are  flattened  out  onto  one  plane.  At  first  it  is 
difficult  to  think  of  these  various  parts  in  this  position,  but  it 
becomes  easier  when  one  grows  accustomed  to  thinking  what 
each  part  of  the  drawing  means.  So  with  reading  a  blue  print. 
At  first  it  seems  impossible  but  by  concentrated  study  the  task 
can  be  accomplished. 

Fig.  40  shows  a  perspective  drawing  of  a  telephone  table 
with  each  piece  lettered  and  numbered,  number  1  indicating  the 
top  view  of  the  piece,  number  2  the  front  view  of  the  same 
piece  and  number  3  the  end  view  of  that  piece.  By*  locating  all 
three  views  of  each  piece  on  the  mechanical  drawing,  Fig.  41, 
according  to  these  numbers,  one  will  become  familiar  with  their 
correct  location.  To  further  check  this  reading,  the  reference 
letters,  with  the  name  and  size  of  the  piece  indicated  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  cutting  bill. 


CUTTING  BILL 


87 


A' 


Fig.  41 


"— CTri  j 

,11         t  -         Hy'^x 


There  is  very  little  difference  between  reading  blue  prints 
or  mechanical  drawings  of  cabinet  work  and  for  objects  con- 
structed of  metal  or  other  materials.  Each  form  of  construction 
has  its  own  symbols  or  special  characteristics.  For  example, 
compare  the  drawings  on  the  following  pages  for  details  typical 
of  the  different  occupations  each  represents. 

Page  140 — Cabinet  making.    Page  89 — Architecture. 

Page  88 — Machine  design.     Page  264 — Electrical  construction. 

The  chief  thing  to  learn  in  reading  a  blue  print  is  what  each 
kind  of  line  represents,  Fig.  11,  and  to  be  able  to  see  from  where 
and  to  where  the  measurements  are  made.  Once  this  is  learned, 
even  complicated  drawings  are  easily  understood. 

CUTTING  BILL 

In  order  to  make  out  a  cutting  bill,  one  must  be  able  to  read 
a  blue  print  accurately.  It  is  best  to  start  with  the  largest  or 
most  important  piece  first.  Since  the  dimension  for  thickness 
is  always  given  first,  one  should  look  for  the  dimension  line 
which  gives  the  thickness  of  this  most  important  piece.  In  this 
drawing,  selecting  the  top  as  that  piece,  the  dimension  sought 


88 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Fig.42 

A 

B 

c 

B 

'* 

D 

E 

WASTE 

G 

Y 

WORM  WHEEL 

AND     WORM 


Fig.  4  3 


will  be  found  between  the  front  and  end  views.  The  width  is 
always  given  second.  In  this  drawing  figures  giving  the  width 
are  found  to  the  right  of  the  top  view.  The  last  dimension, 
length,  in  this  case  is  found  between  the  top  and  front  views. 
These  dimensions  are  entered  on  the  cutting  bill  as  shown  in 
Fig.  40.  By  locating  each  piece  of  the  telephone  table  in  the 
perspective  sketch,  the  mechanical  drawing  and  the  cutting  bill, 
and  checking  the  dimensions  in  each  one,  against  the  other, 
experience  is  gained  in  reading  and  interpreting  the  drawing. 

MILL  BILL 

In  order  to  get  the  material  for  the  sizes  suggested  in  the 
cutting  bill  it  must  be  determined  how  many  boards  will  be 
required  and  of  what  thickness,  width  and  length  they  must  be 
to  cover  the  dimensions.  This  can  be  determined  with  a  layout 
as  shown  in  Fig.  42,  but  when  a  little  experience  has  been 
acquired  one  becomes  so  familiar  with  the  method  of  doing  this 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  reduce  it  to  a  drawing  on  paper. 

In  making  up  a  mill  bill  from  a  cutting  bill  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  some  waste,  partly  in  saw  kerfs  and  partly 
because  of  the  shapes  of  the  boards.  The  problem  is  to  reduce 
the  cutting  bill  to  the  fewest  number  of  boards  of  standard 


MILL  BILL 


89 


ftg.44 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 


SECOND  FLOOR  PUM 


length.  Allowance  must  be  made  for  saw  kerfs  and  each  piece 
must  be  enough  larger  than  the  actual  size  when  finished,  to 
give  the  workman  plenty  of  material  to  get  the  piece  out  accord- 
ing to  the  dimensions  in  the  cutting  bill.  In  this  telephone  table 
the  net  amount  of  length  required  is  63".  While  perhaps 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  would  be  enough  to  allow  between  boards, 
unless  the  sawing  were  absolutely  square  it  would  be  impossible 
to  get  the  parts  out  according  to  the  cutting  bill  sizes.  Since 
the  nearest  stock  length  to  that  required  is  6',  one  would 
have  to  pay  for  the  difference  between  63"  and  6',  even  if 
it  were  cut  off,  so  it  is  best  to  leave  it  on  the  mill  bill  as 
allowance  for  sawing  space.  The  drawing,  Fig.  42,  shows  how 
all  pieces  of  the  telephone  table  can  be  gotten  out  of  a  single 
board.  While  three  of  the  pieces  of  the  table  are  to  be  of  half 
inch  stock,  they  are  so  small  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  one  thick- 
ness of  lumber  for  all  parts  and  plane  these  three  pieces  down 
to  their  proper  thickness. 


90         COMMON  JOINTS  AND  CONSTRUCTIONS 


Halflap 


Tenon 


Tenon 


COMMON  JOINTS 

Butt,  dado,  rabbet,  dovetail  and  gain  joints  are  all  similar 
in  construction.  The  butt  is  the  simplest  and  is  adapted  for 
crates,  boxes  and  general  construction.  The  4ado  is  used  in 
drawer  and  shelf  construction.  The  rabbet  is  used  where  it  is 
desirable  to  cover  the  end  grain  of  the  joints.  The  dove  tail 
is  so  constructed  that  its  shape  holds  it  together.  The  gain  is 
used  for  practically  the  same  purposes  as  the  dado,  but  it  is  so 
constructed  that  the  joint  is  hidden  from  the  front. 

A  mitre  joint  is  a  45°  angle  butt  joint  used  in  picture  frames 
and  in  joining  moldings. 

A  half  lap  joint  is  used  where  it  is  desired  tp  have  two 
pieces  cross  each  other  without  increasing  the  thickness  beyond 
that  of  one  piece. 

A  mortise  and  tenon  is  the  best  joint  for  most  purposes 
from  cabinet  making  to  general  construction. 

COMMON  CONSTRUCTIONS 

Through  nailed  construction  and  toe  nailed  construction 
are  the  most  common  types  used  in  various  kinds  of  work. 
Dowel  construction  can  be  so  made  that  the  dowels  do  not  show 
when  the  joint  is  assembled.  Draw  bolt  construction  is  used 
in  joints  subjected  to  great  strain.  The  joints  can  be  tightened 
up  when  they  work  loose,  by  twisting  the  bolts. 


COMMON  JOINTS  AND  CONSTRUCTIONS         91 


Toe  Nail 


Clapboard 
barn  Door  Drawing£oard  Panel 


Surface  coverings  are  made  with  butt,  tongue  and  groove, 
spline,  ship  lap  and  clapboard  construction.  Butt  joints  admit 
light  and  air  while  the  others  do  not.  All  boards  shrink  and 
swell  with  changing  weather  conditions,  but  these  joints  will 
remain  light  and  dust  proof.  The  joint  in  shiplap  and  tongue 
and  groove  construction  is  often  made  less  noticeable  by  the 
grooving  of  a  bead  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  joint. 

Rabbet,  chamfer,  stop  chamfer  and  bevel  are  forms  of  edge 
construction.  .In  each,  one  arris  is  cut  away.  In  the  rabbet  the 
two  new  surfaces  formed,  parallel  the  faces  of  the  board.  In 
the  chamfer  one  new  surface  is  made  which  is  oblique  to  the 
other  faces.  The  stop  chamfer  does  not  extend  the  full  length 
of  the  board.  A  bevel  differs  from  a  chamfer  in  that  its  slant 
begins  at  one  arris  of  the  board  instead  of  at  a  point  on  one  face. 

In  barn  door  construction  several  boards  with  edges  butted 
are  held  together  with  a  batten.  If  it  is  used  for  a  door,  a 
diagonal  brace  which  slants  down  from  the  hinge  side  is  usually 
added.  In  drawing  board  construction,  the  ends  of  one  or  more 
boards  are  tongued  and  set  into  a  grove  in  the  edge  of  another 
board.  The  grain  running  two  ways  keeps  each  from  warping. 
Panel  construction  is  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  cov- 
ering the  size  of  which  will  not  change  with  leather  conditions. 
The  frame  will  retain  its  shape  because  the  grain  runs  two 
ways  and  the  panel  of  thinner  wood  may  shrink  or  expand  in 
the  grove.  The  panel  must  never  be  glued  into  the  groove. 


92 


WOODWORKING 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  OPERATIONS 

In  making  any  project  there  are  certain  fundamental  opera- 
s   which   must  be   undergone.      Briefly   they  arrange   them- 

p«    a<i    follows  * 


tions  which 
selves  as  follows: 

Selecting    the    stock    in 


regard   to 


The  working  drawing. 

The  suitability  in  regard  to  use. 

The  suitability  in  regard  to  appearance. 

The  suitability  in  regard  to  working  qualities. 


Measuring -and  laying  out. 
Getting  out  stock. 


Cutting  to  size 


{Roughing  out. 
Smoothing. 
Joints. 


Assembling  with 


Nails. 
Screws. 
Glue. 
Dowels. 


Finishing 


Scraping. 
Sanding. 
Stain. 
Paint. 

Paste  Filler. 
(Liquid  Filler. 

I?-     i  e     t  I  Shellac. 

Final  Surfaces J  Wax. 

I  Varnish. 


Preparing  Surfaces, 
Coloring  Surfaces.. 

Filling  Surfaces 


A  knowledge  of  these  fundamental  operations  will  aid  one 
m  making  any  project.  They  should  therefore  be  carefully 
studied  and  followed  in  making  any  of  the  projects  set  forth  in 
the  following  pages. 

Selecting  Stock.  In  selecting  the  kind  of  wood  for  a  pro- 
ject, the  strength,  hardness,  weight,  grain,  etc.,  should  be  con- 
sidered or  much  time  may  be  spent  on  building  the  project  only 
to  find  that  the  wood  is  not  strong  enough  to  stand  the  strain,  or 
that  it  would  appear  more  beautiful  if  wood  with  a  more  pro- 
nounced grain  had  been  used.  The  chart  on  page  40  will  be 
of  great  help  in  determining  the  kind  of  wood  to  select  for  a 
project.' 

The  kind  of  wood  having  been  determined,  a  board  of  suf- 
ficient size  to  allow  all  pieces  to  be  gotten  out  of  it  economically 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OPERATIONS  93 

should  be  selected.  In  order  to  do  this,  one  must  thoroughly 
understand  how  to  read  a  mechanical  drawing  or  blue  print  so 
that  he  knows  the  exact  size  of  every  piece.  (See  section  on 
"Reading  Blue  Prints"  and  "Cutting  Bills,"  on  page  86.) 

Measuring  and  Laying  Out.  Either  a  rule,  yard  stick  or 
framing  square  may  be  used  in  measuring  and  laying  out  stock. 
Allowance  must  always  be  made  for  waste  in  sawing.  When 
measuring  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  the  measuring  tool  must 
be  held  parallel  to  the  long  edges  and  never  diagonally  even  to 
the  slightest  degree,  or  inaccurate  measurements  will  result. 
Measurements  and  lines  set  off  across  the  grain  must  be  made 
along  the  edge  of  the  blade  of  the  try  square  or  framing  square, 
the  other  blade  or  head  of  which  is  held  against  the  truest  edge 
of  the  board. 

Getting  Out  Stock.  The  wood  must  be  held  securely  in  a 
vise  or  across  or  between  saw  horses  while  the  stock  is  being 
sawed.  Care  must  be  taken  while  sawing  not  to  split  the  board. 
As  the  end  of  a  cut  is  neared,  the  hand  holding  the  board  should 
take  hold  of  that  part  being  sawed  off  and  the  sawing  should 
proceed  more  slowly  and  with  shorter  strokes.  Wood  not  used 
should  be  returned  to  its  proper  place  in  the  rack. 

Cutting  Wood  to  Size.  For  some  outside  work  the  wood 
may  be  sawed  to  size  and  left  rough  although  it  usually  pays  to 
take  the  additional  time  necessary  to  plane  the  surfaces,  from 
the  points  both  of  appearance  and  durability.  Moisture  will  seep 
into  the  grain  of  a  rough  board  much  more  quickly  than  into 
that  of  a  smooth  board. 

If  it  is  desired  to  use  up  scraps  of  lumber  in  any  given 
project,  the  pieces  selected  should  be  reduced  to  near  the  finished 
size  as  described  in  "Getting  Out  Stock."  Time  thus  spent 
often  saves  much  unnecessary  planing. 

A  rectangular  board  has  one  surface  and  six  faces.  Two  of 
these  are  called  broad  faces,  two  edges  (narrow  faces  running 
with  the  grain),  and  two  ends  (narrow  faces  running  across 
the  grain).  The  order  usually  followed  in  squaring  up  a  board 
to  any  given  dimension  is : 

1st.  Planing  one  board  face  smooth  and  true;  testing  it 
lengthwise  and  crosswise,  Fig.  1,  with  the  blade  of  the  try 
square  or  framing  square  to  be  sure  that  it  is  perfectly  flat; 
marking  this  face  with  a  light  pencil  mark  to  indicate  that  it  is 
finished.  This  is  called  the  working  face,  Fig.  2. 

2nd.  Planing  one  edge  smooth  and  square  to  the  working 
face,  testing  it  lengthwise  and  crosswise  from  the  working  faces 
with  the  try  square,  Fig.  3,  then  marking  it.-  This  face  is  called 
a  working  edge,  Fig.  4. 


94- 


WOODWORKING 


Fig.  1 


Fig.2 


3rd.  Squaring  up  one  end  to  the  working  face  and  work- 
ing edge.  In  case  the  end  is  very  much  out  of  true  a  knife 
line  should  be  scored  around  the  board,  first  across  the  working 
face,  then  across  the  working  edge,  then  across  the  unfinished 
broad  face  and  then  across  the  unfinished  edge.  If  the  line  is 
scored  along  the  marking  edge  of  the  try  square  and  the  head 
of  the  square  is  held  tightly  against  a  working  face  or  edge 
while  the  line  is  being  scored,  Fig.  5,  the  lines  will  meet  on  each 
arris  of  the  board.  If  there  is  much  wood  to  be  removed  out- 
side the  scored  line,  it  may  be  sawed  off  close  to  the  line  and 
then  planed  to  the  center  of  the  line. 

In  planing  end  grain  it  is  necessary  to  cut  across  the  wood 
fibers.  Since  they  separate  easily  the  wood  will  splinter  or  split 
at  the  far  edge  if  the  plane  is  pushed  all  the  way  across  the 
board,  Fig.  6.  To  avoid  this  splintering  the  plane  should  be 
pushed  from  each  edge  toward  the  center.  The  trueness  and 
squareness  of  the  end  can  be  verified  with  the  try  square,  Fig. 
7,  but  if  the  scored  line  has  been  carefully  divided  by  the 
cutting  iron  of  the  plane,  the  end  is,  of  necessity,  square.  This 
end  is  called  a  working  end,  Fig.  8. 

4th.  Measuring  the  required  length  from  the  working  end 
along  the  arris  between  the  working  face  and  working  edge  and 
scoring  a  line  through  this  point  around  the  board  as  in  the 
third  step.  Sawing  and  planing  to  this  line  will  give  the  length, 
Fig.  9.  


Fig-3 


*  Step 


Fig.  4 


Martina 
edge* 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OPERATIONS 


95 


Fig.  5 


Working  edge 


Fig.  6 


5th.  With  the  marking  gauge  set  to  the  desired  width  (see 
section  on  "  Lay  ing  Out  Tools"),  gauging  a  line  from  the  work- 
ing edge  on  both  broad  faces  of  the  board,  then  planing  to  the 
center- of  the  gauge  line.  If  there  is  too  much  wood  to  plane 
away,  the  greater  part  may  be  cut  away  close  to  the  gauge  line 
with  the  rip  saw.  Planing  to  this  line  reduces  the  board  to 
width,  Fig.  10. 

6th.  With  the  marking  gauge  set  for  the  correct  thickness, 
gauging  a  line  from  the  working  face  on  both  edges  and  across 
both  ends.  Planing  to  this  line  smoothes  the  last  broad  face 
and  gives  the  final  dimension  of  the  board,  thickness,  Fig.  11. 

When  boards  are  irregular  in  shape,  either  with  curved 
surfaces  or  straight  edges  oblique  to  the  line  of  the  grain,  the 
waste  wood  can  be  removed  with  a  saw,  Fig.  16,  page  8,  or 
it  may  be  chiselled  as  shown  in  Fig.  35,  page  14.  Large  curved 
edges  should  be  smoothed  with  the  spokeshave,  small  curved 
edges  with  the  chisel  or  gouge,  but  if  the  opening  is  too  small 
for  these  tools,  the  wood  rasp  may  be  used.  Never  use  the 
wood  rasp  if  it  is  possible  to  use  the  plane  or  sp'okeshave. 

After  all  parts  are  cut  to  size,  the  joints  are  laid  out  and 
cut  as  illustrated  in  the  section  on  "Joints/'  page  90. 

Assembling.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  assembling  is  to  see 
that  all  pieces  of  the  project  are  of  the  proper  size  and  shape. 


Fig.  7 

Workingface 
Working  edg 


3* Step 


forking 
end* 


Fig.8 


96 


WOODWORKING 


Fig.  9 


Fig.  10 


Fig.  if 


The  kinds  of  fasteners  to  be  used  should  be  determined  by  a 
study  of  the  strength  required,  appearance,  kind  of  wood,  etc. 
Before  any  parts  are  permanently  fastened  together,  the  entire 
project  as  near  as  possible  should  be  set  up  to  see  that  every- 
thing goes  together  properly.  Joints  should  be  fitted  together 
squarely  and  held  in  that  position  until  the  nails  and  screws 
are  driven  in  or  until  the  glue  "sets." 

In  gluing  up  stools,  tables,  chairs,  cabinets,  etc.,  the  sides 
must  be  held  square  to  the  front  and  back.  The  framing  square 
and  try  square  should  be  used  freely  in  testing  this  squareness. 
The  legs  of  all  such  projects  must  stand  flat  on  the  floor. 

Finishing.  The  kind  of  finish  which  should  be  given  a  pro- 
ject depends  upon  a  number  of  things.  Generally  speaking,  all 
projects  used  out  of  doors  should  be  painted,  while  for  indoor 
work,  if  the  wood  is  carefully  smoothed  and  the  grain  exposed 
produces  an  interesting  pattern,  staining  and  varnishing  is  more 
satisfactory.  See  section  on  "Wood  Finishes."  If  there  is  no 
objection  to  covering  the  grain,  paint  can  be  used  on  indoor 
projects.  If  lumber  is  knotty  or  otherwise  of  poor  quality  it 
should  be  painted.  Surfaces  which  are  fuzzy  or  rough  do  not 
finish  well  and  they  should  first  be  smoothed.  Some  woods, 
even  after  planing,  appear  slightly  rough  and  need  to  be  scraped 
or  sandpapered  especially  if  the  surfaces  are  soiled.  All  traces 
of  grease  must  be  removed  from  the  parts  to  be  finished  or  the 
paint  or  stain  will  not  "anchor." 

Paint  is  of  such  consistency  that  it  will  float  into  and  fill 
up  the  pores  of  wood,  making  it  moisture  proof,  but  if  the  article 
is  stained,  these  pores  are  still  exposed  and  they  should  be 
filled  until  the  surface  is  smooth.  Then  the  final  finish  of  shellac, 
wax  or  varnish  applied.  See  paragraph  on  filler  in  section  on 
"Wood  Finishes." 

A  special  room  should  be  provided  for  finishing  projects 
because  dust  particles  will  settle  on  the  varnish  or  paint  when 
the  shop  room  is  swept  and  mar  the  finish.  In  a  desire  to  get 
a  project  completed,  the  worker  often  fails  to  put  enough  time 
and  care  in  properly  smoothing  and  finishing  the  article,  and 
thus  spoils  the  appearance  of  an  otherwise  excellent  piece  of 
workmanship. 


97 
WOODWORKING  PROJECTS 

Since  any  project  constructed  of  wood  involves  practically 
the  same  fundamental  operations,  details  concerning  these  have 
been  eliminated  in  the  projects  set  forth  in  the  following  pages. 
Only  enough  descriptive  matter  has  been  given  to  make  the 
drawings  clear  and  the  projects  understood.  In  some  cases 
definite  dimensions  have  been  eliminated,  it  being  left  to  the  in- 
dividual to  work  these  out  to  fit  his  special  need.  In  all  cases 
the  dimensions  given  should  be  considered  as  flexible  and  they 
can  be  modified  or  changed  to  suit  any  special  emergency. 

While  the  projects  are  grouped  under  such  headings  as 
Sawing  and  Nailing,  Planing,  etc.,  by  modifying  the  design 
somewhat,  a  project  suggested  under  one  heading  can  be 
brought  under  another  classification.  While  the  following  pages 
give  only  a  limited  number  of  definite  projects,  others  are  sug- 
gested throughout  the  book  under  various  general  headings. 
They  can  be  located  by  name  in  the  index. 

While  the  drawings  are  complete  enough  for  one  to  work 
directly  from  the  book,  the  construction  of  a  working  drawing, 
including  any  individual  modifications,  will  be  found  very  help- 
ful. We  learn  to  read  blue  prints  and  working  drawings  best 
by  reproducing  them  or  making  original  drawings  of  our  own. 
See  the  section  on  Mechanical  Drawing  for  directions  for  mak- 
ing and  interpreting  working  drawings. 

After  the  working  drawing  has  been  completed,  a  stock 
bill  should  be  made  out  and  the  cost  of  the  materials  computed. 
The  following  form  shows  a  simple  stock  bill  for  small  shop 
projects: 


Project 

Name 

Date 

Pieces 

Thickness 

Width 

Length 

Board  Feet 

Kind  of 
Lumber 

Price  per 
Foot 

'Cost 

Total 

If  this  bill  is  carefully  made  out  from  the  working  draw- 
ing the  pupil  is  less  apt  to  make  mistakes  in  cutting  out  his 
materials. 


WOODWORKING 


I 

1 

7' 

8 

-4-* 

1  •                                  1 

-40 


FLOWER  Box     FIG. 


II 


PLANT  TRELLIS      Fro.  Z 


99 

SAWING  AND  NAILING  PROJECTS 

The  projects  in  this  group  are  either  made  of  rough  material 
or  of  lumber  already  surfaced  for  use.  They  involve  the  three 
processes  of  measuring,  sawing  and  nailing.  Since  all  of  them 
are  planned  for  outdoor  use,  they  should  be  painted  in  order  to 
preserve  the  wood. 

WINDOW  FLOWER  BOX 

Flower  boxes  are  made  in  many  different  shapes  and  sizes. 
The  box  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  designed  to  rest  on  brackets  below 
a  window  on  the  outside  of  a  house.  The  bottom  board  is  40" 
long  and  7/4"  wide.  The  sides  should  first  be  squared  up 
40"  x  8".  A  triangular  block,  of  the  dimensions  shown  in  the 
drawing,  is  sawed  off  the  top  corner  of  each  side.  The  sides  are 
nailed  to  the  bottom  and  the  ends.  A  few  holes  should  be  bored 
in  the  bottom  to  allow  the  surplus  water  to  drain  out. 

For  outdoor  use,  this  box  should  be  painted.  See  page  54 
for  directions  for  painting.  The  box  may  be  used  indoors,  in 
which  case  it  may  be  either  painted  or  stained.  A  flat  pan 
should  be  used  under  the  box  if  it  is  used  indoors  to  catch  any 
surplus  water  seeping  through  the  holes  in  the  bottom. 

In  this  project  as  in  the  succeeding  ones,  the  design  is  only 
suggestive  and  should  be  modified  to  embody  original  designs 
by  the  pupil. 

PLANT  TRELLIS 

This  plant  trellis  is  made  by  laying  out  a  2  x  4  into  6  equal 
strips  and  ripping  down  each  division  mark  to  the  point  B. 
A  bolt  should  be  placed  through  the  base  just  below  the  point 
B  to  prevent  the  base  from  splitting  when  the  strips  are  bent 
out.  Three  or  more  cross  strips  should  be  nailed  to  these  strips, 
care  being  taken  to  properly  space  the  strips.  This  trellis 
should  be  made  with  a  base  long  enough  to  allow  it  to  be  firmly 
set  in  the  ground.  The  height  may  be  varied  to  meet  the  size 
of  the  plant  for  which  it  is  made.  Instead  of  a  2  x  4,  a  1"  board 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  A  board  6"  or  8"  wide  will  give 
a  much  wider  trellis  and  one  of  these  widths  should  be  used 
when  a  large  plant  is  to  be  trellised. 


Many    excellent    projects    in    rough    construction    involving    sawing    and 
nailing   may   also   be   found   in   the   section   on   School-Home   Projects. 


100 


WOODWORKING 


H 
c 
c 


i_LL 


"2 


•?t    I    II 


WASH  TUB  BENCH      FIG. 3 


TOMATO  TRELLIS     FIG. 4 


SAWING  AND  NAIlxttfai  fT3if£t$;' <'*.          101 
WASH  TUB  BENCH 

\ 

A  wash  tub  bench  with  a  slatted  top  is  much  superior  to 
one  with  a  solid  top,  because  the  water  which  is  splashed  over 
the  side  of  the  tub  drains  off  more  rapidly.  The  top  of  the 
bench  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  composed  of  four  pieces  %"x3"x42", 
spaced  2"  apart.  These  slats  are  nailed  to  two  cleats  which  are 
sunk  level  with  the  top  of  the  side  rail  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  ends  are  nailed  to  these  two  cleats  and  also  to  the 
two  side  rails  to  give  solidity  to  the  bench.  A  cross  brace  should 
be  placed  in  the  middle  and  the  side  strips  and  top  slats  nailed 
to  it. 

The  height  of  the  bench  should  be  adjusted  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  person  for  whom  it  is  made.  There  are  a 
variety  of  designs  for  the  ends,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  the 
drawing.  The  bench  should  be  painted  to  preserve  it  and  keep 
the  boards  from  warping  under  the  alternate  wetting  and  drying 
processes  through  which  the  unpainted  boards  must  pass. 

TOMATO  TRELLIS 

Many  schemes  have  been  used  to  keep  tomatoes  off  the 
ground  when  they  are  ripening.  Some  gardeners  drive  stakes 
by  the  side  of  the  plants  and  tie  the  plants  securely  to  these 
stakes.  Others  put  straw  under  the  plants  and  thus  keep  the 
tomatoes  off  the  ground.  The  trellis  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  made 
by  nailing  strips  of  box  lumber  or  other  waste  boards  to  end 
cleats  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  These  end  cleats  should 
be  fastened  together  with  a  screw  or  nail  at  the  joint.  A  wire 
is  used  across  both  ends  to  hold  the  sides  at  the  proper  angle 
and  prevent  the  trellis  from  spreading  too  far.  At  the  end  of 
the  season,  by  loosening  the  wires  the  trellis  may  be  flattened 
out  and  stored  away  for  the  next  season. 

The  tomato  plant  is  trained  through  the  opening  in  the 
middle  of  the  trellis  and  then  allowed  to  spread  out  on  the 
frame.  This  allows  the  tomato  plant  to  assume  a  natural  posi- 
tion and  still  be  off  the  ground.  This  trellis  may  be  made  for 
a  single  plant  or  may  be  made  long  enough  to  support  several 
plants. 

Another  type  of  tomato  trellis  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 
ladder  supported  horizontally  by  two  stakes  at  each  end.  Bolts 
or  heavy  spikes  are  inserted  in  holes  in  these  end  stakes  so 
that  the  ladder  is  adjustable  and  may  be  raised  as  the  plants 
increase  in  height.  This  trellis  requires  less  lumber  than  the 
one  described  above. 


102 


WOODWORKING 


WREN 


O 


Houses    FIG.  5 

WOODPECKER 


MARTIN 


W/fefor 
fastening 
house  to 
post 


SAWING  AND  NAILING  PROJECTS 


103 


5.    BIRD  HOUSES 

The  birds  are  our  crop  protectors.  They  eat  a  very  large 
number  of  insects  each  day  and  thus  prevent  a  too  rapid  in- 
crease of  the  enemies  of  our  crops.  We  should  show  our  appre- 
ciation to  our  feathered  friends  by  building  houses  for  them. 

Three  simple  designs  of  bird  houses  are  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
The  red-headed  woodpecker's  house  is  made  out  of  a  hollow  limb, 
covered  by  a  slab  or  board.  The  martin's  house  is  divided  by 
means  of  partitions  into  10  compartments.  This  house  should 
be  constructed  so  that  the  top  or  ends  may  be  easily  removed 
in  order  to  clean  out  the  old  nests  each  Spring.  This  may  be 
done  by  fastening  them  with  screws. 

The  proper  sizes  of  the  houses  and  the  openings  into  them 
suitable  for  several  of  our  common  birds  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

DIMENSIONS  OF  BIRD  HOUSES 


BIRD 

Inside 
Width 
in  Inches 

Inside 
Length 
in  Inches 

Inside 
Height 
in  Inches 

Height  of 
Entrance 
in  Inches 

Diameter  of 
Entrance 
in  Inches 

1.  Wren. 

4 

4 

w 

5 

1 

2.  Bluebird 

5 

5 

g 

6 

1  14 

3.  Chicadee  

4 

4 

9 

g 

\\L 

4.  Tree   Swallow.  .  , 
5.  Robin  

5 
6 

5 
g 

6 
g 

5 
Open  Side 

1% 

Open  Side 

6.  Barn   Swallow.  .  .  . 

6 

6 

6 

Open  Side 

Open  Side 

7.  Martin  

6 

6 

6 

1 

0x4 

8    Flicker 

7 

7 

18 

16 

014 

9.  Red-headed   Woodpecker 
10.  Barn  Owl 

6 
10 

6 
18 

15 

18 

12 
4 

2 
g 

The  placing  of  the  entrance,  so  that  it  will  leave  room  for 
the  nest  and  not  be  too  high  for  the  bird  to  reach  when  leaving, 
is  very  important.  Most  bird  houses  should  be  nailed  or  wired 
firmly  to  a  tree,  the  side  of  a  building  or  upon  the  top  of  a 
pole.  Some  houses,  such  as  the  wren's,  may  be  swung  to  the 
limb  of  a  tree  by  a  wire.  It  has  also  been  found  that  a  perch  is 
not  necessary  and  that  sparrows  do  not  bother  houses  so  much 
on  which  there  are  no  perches. 

Bird  houses  may  be  put  up  as  soon  as  they  are  made.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  birds  prefer  houses  which  have  been  exposed  to 
the  weather  for  some  time  to  those  which  are  new  or  which  have 
been  newly  painted. 


For  additional   information   on  bird   houses   see   Farmer's   Bulletin,   No 
609.    TT.    S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture. 


104 


WOODWORKING 


Tin 


DOG  HOUSE    FIG. 6 


ASH  SIFTERS    FIG. 7 


SAWING  AND  NAILING  PROJECTS  105 

DOG  HOUSE 

Every  boy  who  owns  a  dog  is  interested  in  building  a  suit- 
able house  or  kennel  for  him.  The  size  of  the  house  will  vary 
according  to  the  size  of  the  dog,  consequently  Fig.  6  merely 
shows  a  good  design  for  a  dog  house,  but  does  not  prescribe 
specific  dimensions. 

This  house  should  be  provided  with  a  window  in  the  back 
covered  with  a  screen.  In  the  summer  both  the  door  and  the 
window  may  be  left  open  to  provide  suitable  ventilation.  In 
the  winter  the  house  may  be  put  inside  another  building  and 
only  the  window  left  open  for  ventilation. 

The  dog  house  wiU  have  a  much  neater  appearance  and  be 
more  durable  if  it  is  painted  or  stained.  It  should  be  painted 
for  outdoor  use  and  either  stained  or  painted  if  used  indoors. 

ASH  SIFTERS 

Many  of  the  householders  in  the  northern  states  are  sift- 
ing the  ashes  obtained  from  anthracite  coal.  This  results  not 
only  in  thousands  of  dollars  being  saved,  but  also  helps  con- 
serve our  inadequate  and  rapidly  dwindling  supply  of  hard 
coal. 

Fig.  7  gives  the  details  of  a  home-made  ash  sifter.  This 
sifter  may  be  constructed  of  rough  lumber,  but  it  should  be 
accurately  made.  The  box  should  be  made  about  24"  square 
and  from  5"  to  6"  deep.  The  screen  in  the  bottom  is  made  of 
%"  hardware  mesh.  This  screen  is  fastened  in  place  by  nailing 
YZ" "x%"  strips  along  the  edges  of  the  mesh  on  the  bottom 
of  the  box.  The  handles  of  the  sifter  should  be  slightly 
rounded  with  a  spokeshave  or  a  draw  knife. 

A  frame  should  be  made  on  which  the  shaker  may  roll  in 
sifting  the  ashes.  This  frame  should  be  about  30"  high,  28" 
wide  and  32"  long.  It  may  be  constructed  out  of  2"  x  4"  or 
2"x2"  material  for  the  legs  and  %"x6"  boards  for  the  sides. 
These  sides  should  be  securely  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  legs 
so  that  the  frame  will  be  solid.  The  frame  is  easily  moved  to  a 
new  location  when  the  ash  pile  becomes  too  high.  A  broom 
stick  or  any  round  handle  about  3'  long  may  be  used  as  a 
roller. 

The  lower  drawing  shows  the  same  box  mounted  on  wheels. 
This  is  a  very  convenient  form  of  sifter  to  use  in  the  country 
where  the  ashes  are  distributed  evenly  along  a  road  or  drive- 
way to  improve  the  roadbed. 


106 


WOODWORKING 


CUTTING  BOARDS  FIG. 8 


SANDPAPER  BLOCK 
F.G.9 


JAR  COVER  FIG. 10 


i 


PENCIL  5HARPENER 

FIG  II 


Top 


End 


NAIL  Box     FIG.  12 


107 

PLANING  PROJECTS 

Every  beginner  in  woodworking  needs  practice  in  planing. 
At  the  same  time  he  should  be  making  something  that  is  useful 
while  he  is  getting  this  practice.  A  variety  of  useful  planing 
projects  are  described  below. 

CUTTING  BOARDS 

A  cutting  board  serves  a  variety  of  uses  and  is  always  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  kitchen  equipment.  The  pupil  should 
plan  the  dimensions  to  suit  his  needs.  The  dimensions  usually 
vary  from  y2"  x  7"  x  10"  to  %"  x  10"  x  14".  The  board  should 
first  be  carefully  planed  to  dimensions  (see  page  93).  Fig.  8 
shows  a  few  suggestions  for  design  after  the  board  has  been 
squared  up. 

SANDPAPER  BLOCK 

The  dimensions  of  the  sandpaper  block  should  be  de- 
termined by  the  sizes  into  which  the  worker  wishes  to  tear  his 
sandpaper.  They  may  be  made  either  rectangular  (Fig.  9),  or 
with  beveled  sides.  Sandpaper  blocks  can  be  made  from  lum- 
ber from  the  scrap  box  and  thus  convert  waste  material  into 
something  useful. 

JAR  COVER 

The  jar  cover  (Fig.  10)  is  a  project  similar  to  the  cutting 
board.  The  vessel  to  be  covered  should  be  measured  to  de- 
termine the  dimensions  for  the  cover. 

PENCIL  SHARPENER 

The  two  pieces  for  a  pencil  sharpener  may  be  made  from 
a  lath  or  a  piece  of  other  thin  material.  No.  0  sandpaper,  the 
size  of  each  strip  of  wood,  should  be  glued  to  the  two  inner 
faces  and  the  strips  hinged  together  with  small  pieces  of  leather 
fastened  on  with  tacks.  These  leather  hinges  may  be  secured 
from  the  tops  of  an  old  pair  of  shoes.  A  closing  pencil  sharpener, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  11,  keeps  the  pencil  dust  from  coming  in 
contact  with  other  articles  in  the  desk. 

NAIL  BOX 

The  nail  box  shown  in  Fig.  12  is  merely  a  collection  of  6 
rectangular  blocks,  nailed  together.  No  difficulty  will  be  en- 
countered if  the  parts  are  square  and  laid  out  exactly  to 
dimensions. 


108 


WOODWORKING 


U  I I 


BOOK  RACKS      FIG,  13 


PEN  TRAYS    FIG.  14 


LETTER   HOLDERS    FIG.  15 


109 

SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS 

No  attempt  is  made  in  this  section  to  describe  in  detail 
how  each  joint  is  made  in  each  individual  article.  The  methods 
of  laying  out  and  constructing  the  various  kinds  of  joints  are 
described  on  pages  90  to  91.  In  addition  to  the  saw  and  the 
plane,  these  projects  involve  the  use  of  the  chisel  and  spoke- 
shave.  These  tools  are  described  in  detail  on  pages  12  and  13. 

BOOK  RACKS 

No  project  in  woodwork  offers  a  better  opportunity  for 
variation  in  design  than  the  book  rack.  Fig.  13  shows  a  number 
of  suggestions  for  the  ends  of  a  book  rack,  on  any  of  which  may 
be  added  an  appropriate  design  by  carving  or  using  water  colors, 
provided  the  grain  in  the  wood  is  not  too  pronounced. 

The  ends  may  be  fastened  in  a  variety  of  ways.  They  may 
be  screwed  to  the  base  with  a  simple  butt  or  gained  joint.  This 
construction  may  be  used  with  the  ends  placed  on  top  of  the 
base  or  at  the  ends  of  the  base.  If  the  book  rack  is  to  be 
shipped  or  stored  away,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  hinge  the 
ends  so  they  will  fold  down  on  the  base.  The  hinges  should 
be  sunk  in  the  bottom  of  the  ends  in  a  blind  mortise. 

PEN  TRAY 

Wood,  which  is  easily  gouged  such  as  mahogany  or  black 
walnut,  should  be  used  for  the  pen  tray,  shown  in  Fig.  14.  A 
gouge  is  used  to  hollow  out  the  trough  of  the  tray.  A  goose- 
necked  scraper  or  a  cabinet  scraper  with  one  corner  rounded 
should  be  used  to  smooth  the  trough  after  it  has  been  smoothed  as 
much  as  possible  with  the  gouge.  It  should  be  finally  finished 
with  sandpaper.  Alternate  strips  of  a  light  and  a  dark  wood 
about  y?,"  thick  glued  together  makes  a  beautiful  tray.  The 
tray  may  be  finished  with  square  or  chamfered  edges  as  shown 
in  the  illustration. 

LETTER  HOLDER 

Fig.  15  shows  two  designs  for  simple  letter  holders  with 
two  suggested  designs  for  varying  the  shapes  of  the  sides  for 
each.  The  sides  should  be  fastened  to  the  base  with  blued 
screws  and  the  bottom  with  common  screws,  countersunk  so 
that  they  will  not  scratch  the  library  table  on  which  the  holder 
is  placed. 


110 


WOODWORKING 


y^-butt joint 


-2^  K2- 

h 10" — - 


/Dado  joint 


BOOK  SHELVES 
Fie. 16 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS       111 

BOOK  SHELVES 

A  set  of  book  or  magazine  shelves  is  a  useful  addition  to 
the  equipment  of  any  library  or  study.  Fig.  16  gives  a  variety 
of  designs  for  the  ends  of  such  a  set  of  book  shelves. 

End  A  should  first  be  squared  up  10"  wide  and  33"  long. 
From  points  2"  from  each  of  the  upper  corners,  slanting  lines 
are  drawn  to  the  corners  of  the  lower  end.  Saw  these  strips  from 
the  bottom  of  the  end  so  that  accidental  splitting  will  not  injure 
it.  The  handhold  in  the  top  may  be  made  by  boring  two  holes 
with  an  inch  bit  at  each  end  of  the  opening  and  sawing  out  the 
remainder  with  a  compass  saw.  The  edges  of  this  opening  may 
be  finished  with  a  gouge  and  a  round  wood-file. 

End  B  is  made  in  a  similar  manner.  The  hand-hold  is 
more  difficult  to  make.  Most  of  the  wood  may  be  removed  by 
boring  several  holes  with  a  bit  along  the  center  of  the  opening. 
The  chisel  is  used  to  finish  the  edges  of  this  opening. 

End  C  shows  not  only  a  different  design  but  also  shows  a 
trough  shelf  which  may  be  substituted  for  the  two  lower  shelves 
of  the  rack  as  shown  in  the  upper  drawing. 

End  D  shows  a  strip  design.  The  outer  pieces  are  %"x2" 
and  the  "filler"  may  be  made  of  either  y%"  or  ^2"  material. 
The  clover  leaf  design  in  the  filler  may  be  made  by  boring  3 
holes  which  intersect  as  shown  in  the  illustration  and  sawing 
out  the  stem  with  a  coping  saw.  Making  this  design  on  a 
piece  of  scrap  wood  should  be  practiced  before  attempting  to 
work  on  the  "filler."  This  design  is  a  very  good  one  for  maga- 
zine shelves  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  wider  shelves  than 
those  needed  for  books.  It  also  allows  the  shelves  to  be  made 
higher  without  spoiling  the  proportions. 

The  ends  should  be  fastened  to  the  shelves  with  2%"  No. 
10  blued  screws.  Short  screws  will  not  give  sufficient  strength. 
The  "filler"  in  end  D  may  be  nailed  on  with  brads  or  put  on 
with  small  blued  screws.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
ends  of  the  shelves  square  or  this  construction  will  not  be 
strong.  Small  angle  irons  may  be  used  under  the  shelves  for 
extra  braces  if  needed. 

Instead  of  a  butt  joint  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  the 
shelves  may  be  fitted  into  the  ends  by  means  of  dado  or  gained 
joints.  These  joints  will  increase  the  strength  of  the  construc- 
tion. If  these  joints  are  made,  the  beginner  should  be  extremely 
careful  not  to  cut  them  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the  shelves. 


112 


WOODWORKING 


i 


WAU.  RACKS 


i 


B 


REGISTER    RACK 


Side  partly 
dosed 


C 


Coppfr  rivft 
and  burr 


ffa/esfor 


J 


Detail -top  v/ew 


FLOOR    RACK 

CLOTHES  RACKS   FIG. 1 7 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS      113 

CLOTHES  RACKS 

Three  different  designs  for  clothes  racks  are  shown  in  Fig. 
17.  The  upper  drawing  represents  a  wall  rack  to  be  hung  over 
the  kitchen  range  for  drying  dish  towels.  It  consists  of  three 
or  more  arms  swinging  on  a  bolt  fastened  in  a  vertical  position. 
Several  designs  for  shaping  the  back  of  the  wall  rack  are  shown 
in  the  drawing.  There  is  always  a  tendency  for  the  arms  of  a 
towel  rack  to  warp  on  account  of  the  alternate  wetting  and 
drying.  This  construction  enables  one  to  easily  remove  any 
warped  parts  and  substitute  new  ones. 

The  register  rack  is  designed  to  be  placed  over  a  floor 
register  or  in  front  of  a  wall  register  of  a  hot  air  furnace.  If 
large  dowels  are  not  available  for  the  cross  bars,  octagonal  bars 
may  be  made  by  planing  off  the  arrises  of  bars  which  are  about 
1"  square.  If  a  lathe  is  available,  the  bars  may  be  turned  out 
on  it.  The  bars  should  be  glued  in  holes  in  the  frame.  Addi- 
tional strength  will  be  secured  if  the  ends  of  these  bars  are  also 
nailed  in  the  frame.  The  remainder  of  the  frame  should  be 
put  together  with  nails  or  screws. 

The  floor  rack  will  afford  much  more  drying  space  than 
either  of  the  others.  The  base  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  2"  x  2" 
material,  joined  together  with  a  cross  lap  joint.  See  page  90 
for  a  description  of  this  joint.  The  post  is  fastened  to  the  base 
by  a  long  screw,  set  in  from  the  bottom  of  the  cross  lap  joint. 
The  post  should  also  be  supported  with  braces.  One  design 
for  a  brace  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  arms  consist  of  two 
horizontal  bars  fastened  to  a  vertical  bar  with  copper  rivets. 
The  horizontal  bars  are  screwed  to  the  post  with  brass  screws 
and  brass  or  copper  washers.  Ordinary  screws  and  washers 
will  rust  and  damage  the  clothing  hung  on  the  rack.  The  rack 
may  be  folded  by  raising  the  arms  up  toward  the  center  post. 
If  the  screws  and  rivets  are  tight,  the  friction  at  the  joints  will 
be  enough  to  hold  the  arms  in  place  when  the  rack  is  folded. 

By  boring  sets  of  holes  just  below  each  set  of  horizontal 
bars  and  stretching  ropes  around  the  four  arms,  the  hanging 
space  of  the  rack  will  be  greatly  increased  without  interfering 
with  the  folding  of  the  rack. 

The  appearance  of  these  racks  will  be  much  improved  if 
they  are  finished  with  a  water-proof  paint  or  varnish.  There 
will  also  be  less  danger  of  the  bars  getting  water  soaked  and 
warping  if  this  is  done. 


114 


WOODWORKING 


19' 


!        f 


•23 


DZD    n~n 

O    Q 


o= 
5> 


i 


REVERSIBLE  SLEEVE  BOARD  FIG.  18 


r 


T 


jU, 

\  Broom  handle 


SLED    FIG.  19 


60 


IKON  ING  BOARD  FIG. 20 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        115 

SLEEVE  BOARD 

A  sleeve  board  enables  one  to  press  the  sleeve  of  a  gar- 
ment without  leaving  a  crease.  A  reversible  sleeve  board  is  much 
more  convenient  than  the  common  type  of  sleeve  board  because 
pressing  can  be  done  on  both  boards,  the  large  board  bein^ 
used  for  pressing  the  sleeves  of  a  man's  coat  and  the  small 
board  being  used  for  pressing  the  sleeves  of  women's  suits  and 
shirt  waists.  Both  boards  should  be  covered  with  some  heavy 
padding. 

The  curves  at  the  ends  of  each  board  should  be  drawn  with 
a  compass  or  dividers.  The  brace  between  the  boards  may  be 
designed  in  a  variety  of  ways,  a  number  of  which  are  suggested 
in  Fig.  18.  If  a  2"x4"  brace  is  not  available,  two  1"  boards 
may  be  glued  together  to  make  a  brace  of  this  size.  When 
pressing  on  the  ends  of  the  board,  considerable  strain  is  thrown 
on  the  brace.  A  lag  screw  or  bolt,  countersunk  in  each  board 
will  strengthen  the  brace  and  prevent  it  from  splitting. 

SLED 

There  is  a  much  greater  satisfaction  in  the  possession  of  a 
hand  made  sled  of  one's  own  construction  than  in  one  purchased 
at  a  store.  The  sled  shown  in  Fig.  19  is  braced  with  two  cross 
pieces.  Additional  strength  is  secured  by  nailing  the  top  to  the 
runners.  Small  angle  irons,  attached  to  the  top  and  the  run- 
ners, will  also  help  keep  the  runners  from  spreading  or  bending 
in.  These  irons  should  be  sunk  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
runner  so  that  they  will  not  impede  the  progress  of  the  sled 
through  the  snow.  This  sled  will  be  much  improved  if  iron 
runners  are  screwed  to  the  bottom  of  the  wooden  runners. 
These  may  be  easily  made  if  a  forge  is  available. 

IRONING  BOARD 

Fig.  20  shows  an  ironing  board  of  convenient  size  which 
may  be  supported  on  the  backs  of  two  chairs  or  between  a  table 
and  a  chair.  The  strips  across  the  ends  are  put  on  with  a  glued 
tongue  and  grooved  joint.  If  a  plane  for  making  this  joint  is 
not  available,  these  strips  may  be  screwed  or  nailed  to  the 
ends,  the  screws  or  nails  being  placed  close  together.  A  board 
of  this  type  is  particularly  desirable  in  pressing  dresses  because 
the  dresses  can  be  slipped  around  the  whole  board.  If  the  board 
tends  to  warp  one  way  due  to  the  heat  caused  from  the  ironing, 
the  padding  should  be  changed  and  the  other  side  used. 


116 


WOODWORKING 


EZI2J 


MEDICINE  CABINET  FIG. 21 


15 


1 


/id  removed 


COLUR  OR  HANDKERCHIEF  Box  FIG. 22 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        117 

MEDICINE  CABINET 

Every  home  and  every  school  building  should  be  provided 
with  a  medicine  cabinet  in  which  are  kept  supplies  needed  for 
giving  first  aid  to  the  injured.  Fig.  21  shows  an  easily  con- 
structed medicine  cabinet.  The  bottom  shelf  is  dadoed  into  the 
sides,  and  strip  A  is  nailed  over  the  front  edge  of  this  shelf  to 
hide  the  joints.  The  top  is  fastened  to  the  sides  with  a  gain 
joint.  See  page  90  for  a  description  of  the  dado  and  gain 
joints.  The  shelf  may  be  gained  into  the  sides  or  fastened  with 
small  strips  tacked  beneath  it  to  the  sides.  The  center  strip 
in  the  front  should  be  nailed  to  the  top  and  bottom.  The  two 
doors  should  be  hinged  to  the  sides  and  provided  with  catches. 

This  cabinet  should  be  finished  to  match  the  finish  of  the 
room  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  If  it  is  used  in  a  bath-room  which 
is  finished  in  white,  it  should  be  painted  with  a  white  enamel 
paint.  The  catches  on  the  doors  should  be  selected  to  match 
the  finish  of  the  cabinet. 


COLLAR  AND  .HANDKERCHIEF   BOX 

The  box  shown  in  Fig.  22  makes  a  convenient  collar  box. 
One  side  may  be  used  for  clean  collars  and  the  other  for  soiled 
ones.  The  middle  piece  may  be  eliminated  and  the  dimensions 
made  smaller  if  one  wishes  to  use  it  for  a  glove  box. 

The  ends  and  partition  are  fastened  to  the  sides  with  dado 
joints.  If  these  joints  are  well  made,  glue  will  be  sufficient  to 
hold  this  box  together,  but  if  desired,  brads  may  be  nailed 
through  the  sides  into  the  ends  to  strengthen  the  joints. 

The  bottom  is  nailed  to  the  sides  and  ends  with  brads. 
The  top  may  be  hinged  or  it  may  be  kept  in  place  by  nailing 
two  strips  about  2^"  square  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  top  so 
that  they  fit  snugly  against  the  ends  and  sides  when  the  lid  is  in 
its  proper  position. 

The  box  will  look  much  more  artistic  if  the  lower  edges  of 
the  top  and  the  upper  edges  of  the  bottom  are  chamfered.  The 
top  may  also  be  decorated  with  a  design.  A  number  of  designs 
are  suggested  in  the  lower  part  of  the  drawing.  These  designs 
should  be  outlined  with  heavy  pencil  marks  and  colored  with 
water  colors.  A  wood,  not  having  a  pronounced  grain,  such  as 
poplar  or  basswood  is  best  suited  for  this  work  because  a  pro- 
nounced grain  in  the  wood  will  interfere  with  the  lines  of  the 
design.  A  shellac  finish  should  be  given  to  the  box  when  com- 
pleted. 


118 


WOODWORKING 


•ir 


„_!! LL, 


CJ 


Foot  rest 


-is" 


SHOE  SHINING  CABINET    FIG. 23 


[o 


PLANT  STAND    FIG. 24 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        119 

SHOE  SHINING  CABINET 

The  ends  and  partitions  of  the  shoe  shining  cabinet,  Fig.  23, 
are  fitted  into  the  sides  with  dado  joints.  The  top  is  composed 
of  two  boards,  each  7l/2 "  wide  and  18"  long.  One  of  these 
boards  is  fastened  to  the  frame  and  the  other  is  hinged  to  it  in 
the  center.  The  partitions  are  not  essential,  but  enable  one  to 
keep  the  polish,  brush  and  polishing  cloths  separated.  A  rest 
for  the  shoe  may  be  screwed  to  the  lid  and  thus  be  out  of  sight 
when  the  box  is  closed.  The  design  in  the  end  may  be  varied  in 
many  ways. 

This  shoe  shining  cabinet  makes  a  seat  when  closed  and 
should  be  finished  in  the  same  color  as  the  rest  of  the  furniture 
of  the  room  in  which  it  is  placed. 

This  design  may  be  varied  by  using  2"x2"  legs  and  mortise 
and  tenon  joints  for  the  ends  and  sides  as  shown  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  stool  on  page  132.  By  making  a  cushion  the 
same  size  as  the  top,  this  cabinet  will  make  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  a  regular  stool. 

PLANT  STAND 

In  homes  where  flowers  or  ferns  are  kept  indoors,  a  plant 
stand  is  much  appreciated.  The  two  circular  shelves  of  the 
plant  stand,  Fig.  24,  may  vary  from  12"  to  14"  in  diameter, 
according  to  the  height  of  the  stand  and  the  width  of  the 
lumber  that  is  available.  In  case  only  a  limited  amount  of  wide 
stock  is  available,  the  lower  shelf  may  be  eliminated  and  two 
strips  with  a  half  lap  joint  in  the  middle  may  be  used  instead. 

The  legs  should  be  fastened  to  the  shelves  with  dado  joints 
cut  in  the  shelves  and  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
them  fit  accurately  to  make  the  stand  as  strong  as  possible. 
Long  blued  screws  should  be  used  to  fasten  the  legs  to  the 
shelves.  Small  angle  irons  may  also  be  used  on  the  inside  of 
the  legs  and  under  the  top  if  they  are  needed  to  properly  brace 
the  stand.  The  dado  joints  may  be  accurately  spaced  by  draw- 
ing two  diameters  of  the  circle  perpendicular  to  each,  other. 

The  designs  of  the  legs  A  and  B  show  shapes  which  lighten 
the  appearance  of  the  stand  without  weakening  it  structurally. 
Leg  C  shows  a  cut  out  design  and  leg  D  a  design  to  be  applied 
with  water  colors.  If  a  design  is  applied  to  the  top,  it  should 
be  kept  around  the  outer  edge  as  shown  in  the  drawing  so 
that  the  flower  pot  will  not  cover  it. 


120 


WOODWORKING 


•W/re 


12' 


.if 


PUB 


Weaving  needle 


WEAVING  FRAME    FIG. 25 


STEP  LADDER  FIG.  26 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        121 

WEAVING  FRAME 

The  weaving  frame  and  the  needle  for  weaving,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  25,  make  excellent  projects  for  a  class  which  is  organized 
as  a  factory  class.  In  that  way  large  numbers  of  these  articles 
may  be  constructed  for  use  by  the  pupils  in  the  lower  grades. 

These  frames  should  be  made  of  a  tough  wood  so  that  the 
pieces  between  the  saw  cuts  will  not  split  out.  The  saw  kerfs 
should  be  spaced  the  same  distance  apart  and  be  of  a  uniform 
depth.  Instead  of  using  the  saw  kerfs  to  hold  the  warp,  the  end 
strips  may  be  made  narrower  and  the  brads  nailed  in  at  intervals 
of  ]/2ff .  The  bottom  strips  should  be  sunk  level  with  the  lower 
edge  of  the  end  and  fastened  with  glue  and  screws.  Pieces 
of  stiff  wire  should  be  used  at  the  sides  to  keep  the  material, 
which  is  being  woven,  of  the  same  width  throughout  its  length. 
Otherwise  the  weaving  will  be  drawn  in  at  the  center. 

The  weaving  needle  should  be  made  of  J^j"  stock.  The  eye 
of  the  needle  may  be  made  by  boring  two  holes  a  short  distance 
apart  and  cutting  out  the  wood  that  remains  between. 

STEP  LADDER 

The  side  pieces  for  the  step  ladder,  Fig.  26,  should  be  made 
out  of  y%"  boards,  4^"  wide.  To  lay  off  the  dado  joints  for 
the  ends  of  the  steps,  the  T  bevel  should  be  set  to  give  a  slope 
of  about  2"  in  7".  The  steps  should  be  spaced  about  12"  apart. 
The  dado  joints  in  the  sides  should  be  cut  ^4"  deep.  Screws 
about  2l/2"  long  should  be  used  to  fasten  the  steps  securely  to 
the  sides.  Some  ladders  are  made  very  strong  by  putting  srjlall 
rods  across  the  ladder  under  each  step,  with  nuts  on  the  ends 
to  clamp  the  sides  securely  together.  See  page  219  for  directions 
for  cutting  threads  on  the  ends  of  the  rods. 

The  back  legs  are  joined  by  two  cross  cleats  and  two  thin 
strips  are  used  as  diagonal  cross  braces.  This  part  of  the  ladder 
is  hinged  to  a  board  at  the  back  of  the  top  of  the  front  legs.  A 
canvas  or  leather  strip  may  be  used  as  shown  in  the  drawing  to 
prevent  the  ladder  from  spreading.  Two  wooden  braces  with 
notches  in  the  ends,  hinged  at  the  back  and  fitting  on  a  shelf,  may 
be  used  to  keep  the  ladder  from  closing. 

If  the  ladder  is  made  higher  than  the  dimension  given  in 
the  drawing  the  width  of  the  steps  and  the  spread  of  the  ladder 
must  be  increased  to  give  a  larger  base  and  thus  increase  the 
stability  of  the  ladder. 


122 


WOODWORKING 


•  5 

r  " 
fl. 

a 

5ft 

i 
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\ 

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J 

t 

on  &ftnf/o/irod 

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L                                  lA."                               ^                              b                                      *»f)                                  V 

JUMPING  STANDARD            VAULTING  STANDARD 

FiG.27                            FiG.26 

SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        123 

JUMPING  STANDARD 

Track  and  gymnasium  work  are  much  more  interesting  when 
suitable  apparatus  is  available.  The  high  jump  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  field  events  of  a  track  meet.  A  suitable 
set  of  standards  should  be  owned  by  every  boy  who  aspires  to 
be  a  high  jumper. 

Fig.  27  shows  a  convenient  jumping  standard.  The  base 
consists  of  two  2  x  2s,  18"  long  and  joined  together  with  a  cross 
lap  joint.  These  cross  pieces  should  be  rounded  out  on  the  bot- 
tom as  shown  in  the  illustration  so  that  they  will  not  rock  if  the 
ground  is  slightly  uneven.  The  corners  should  also  be  rounded 
to  prevent  a  side  jumper  from  stubbing  his  toe  on  the  corner. 

The  base  should  be  fastened  to  an  upright  2x2  from  65"  to 
72"  high  and  braced  with  4  triangular  blocks  which  may  be 
nailed  or  screwed  in  place. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  boring  the  holes  for  the  pins 'to  hold 
the  bar.  They  should  be  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the 
standard.  A  hole  every  2"  will  be  close  enough  between  the  3' 
and  4'  marks  and  from  4'  up  they  should  be  bored  1"  apart. 

Instead  of  boring  holes  in  the  upright  2x2,  finish  nails  may 
be  nailed  into  the  post  to  a  uniform  depth  and  a  uniform  dis- 
tance apart. 

VAULTING  STANDARD 

The  base  for  the  vaulting  standard  may  be  constructed  the 
same  as  the  base  of  the  jumping  standard.  The  cross  pieces 
should  be  slightly  longer,  however,  on  account  of  the  higher 
standard.  They  will  not  be  in  the  way  because  the  pole  vaulting 
is  done  from  the  front.  The  hollow  post  of  the  standard  is  made 
of  3/2"  material,  carefully  planed  so  that  the  hollow  is  exactly 
1"  square  throughout  its  length.  An  extension  rod  an  inch 
square  and  any  desired  length  may  then  be  inserted  in  this  hol- 
low. A  pin  to  hold  the  bar  is  inserted  in  the  top  of  this  exten- 
sion rod.  The  rod  is  raised  and  a  pin  inserted  through  the  hol- 
low post  below  the  end  of  the  extension  rod.  This  frame  may 
also  be  used  without  an  extension  rod  for  high  jumping  up  to 
4'  6",  and  for  higher  jumps  by  using  a  short  extension  rod. 

The  heights  of  each  hole  should  be  plainly  marked  on  the 
standard  to  eliminate  the  necessity  of  measuring  the  height  of 
each  vault.  The  length  of  the  extension  rod  should  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  marking  the  heights. 


124 


WOODWORKING 


Section  A- A 


Detail  of 
bracket 


fa 


d  D 

ELECTRIC  TABLE   LAMPS  FIG. 29 


SIMPLE  JOINT  AND  CONTOUR  PROJECTS        125 

ELECTRIC  LAMPS 

A  variety  of  designs  and  constructions  are  possible  in  elec- 
tric lamps.  The  base  A  of  Fig.  29  shows  a  square  type  of  de- 
sign. This  base  looks  clumsy  and  uninteresting.  It  looks  too 
much  like  a  collection  of  blocks.  The  base  B  is  the  same  size 
as  base  A  with  the  design  changed.  The  post  is  tapered  and  the 
stop  chamfers  on  the  edges  give  it  a  very  attractive  appearance. 
The  block  on  the  top  is  chamfered  on  the  lower  edges,  giving  a 
holding  up  effect  to  the  design.  The  chamfers  on  the  upper 
edges  of  the  two  base  blocks  and  the  stop  chamfers  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  large  block  give  a  much  more  pleasing  effect  to  that 
part  of  the  base.  Fig.  D  shows  another  type  of  base  in  which 
curved  base  boards  are  used  instead  of  regular  chamfers.  A 
better  design  is  made  in  this  case  if  one  board  is  curved  one 
way  and  one  the  other. 

Wire  frames  to  be  covered  with  silk  or  bamboo  shades  lined 
with  silk  can  be  purchased  for  shades.  These  small  frames 
usually  rest  on  the  top  of  the  light  bulb.  The  shade  should  be 
secured  first  in  order  that  the  base  may  be  constructed  with  the 
right  proportions. 

The  insulated  wire  cord  usually  enters  at  the  side  of  the  base 
board.  A  hole  is  bored  horizontally  to  meet  a  vertical  hole  ex- 
tending through  the  upright  stock.  If  the  stock  is  too  long  to 
allow  the  hole  to  be  bored  all  the  way  through,  it  should  be  bored 
from  both  ends  and  then  bored  the  rest  of  the  way  with  a  red 
hot  iron,  slightly  smaller  than  the  finished  hole. 

A  small  pipe,  with  threads  on  it  for  attaching  the  lamp 
socket,  is  fastened  in  the  top  of  the  hole  in  the  top  block. 

Fig.  29,  C  shows  a  hollow  stock  made  of  four  thin  boards 
glued  together.  This  form  of  construction  would  look  very  bad 
if  it  were  not  for  the  stop  chamfers  on  the  edges,  which  call  the 
attention  away  from  the  joint. 

Instead  of  the  frame  resting  on  the  top  of  the  light  bulb, 
wooden  arms  may  be  screwed  to  the  stock  as  shown  in  Fig.  C. 
The  screws  are  countersunk  with  a  bit  and  rounded  end  dowels 
used  to  plug  the  holes.  In  cutting  out  these  arms,  the  grain 
should  run  lengthwise  in  each  arm. 

A  floor  lamp  about  5'  high  may  be  constructed  from  a 
standard  3"  x  3"  by  sloping  it  to  about  1$4"  square  at  the  top 
and  using  the  stop  chamfers  along  the  sloping  edges.  A  base 
modified  from  that  used  for  the  jumping  standard  may  be  used 
for  this  type  of  lamp. 


126 


WOODWORKING 


BREAD  BOARD   FiG.30 


-Slot 
•Wash 

Screw 


'fhole 


.31  at 

Mbil  batton 


19 


DRAWING  BOARD   FiG.3l 


A- 

aa 

Section  A- A 


17 


PASTRY  BOARD  Fic.3Z 


127 
EDGE  JOINTING  PROJECTS 

Edge  jointing  should  be  done  with  a  jointer  plane.  The 
long  base  of  this  plane  enables  one  to  plane  an  edge  true  more 
easily  than  can  be  done  with  a  smoothing  plane.  In  joining 
large  pieces  together  such  as  the  boards  in  a  table  top,  dowels 
are  usually  used  to  strengthen  the  joints. 

BREAD  CUTTING  BOARD 

A  very  attractive  bread  board  may  be  made  by  gluing 
alternate  strips  of  a  white  and  a  dark  wood  together.  Pine  and 
redwood ;  black  walnut  and  hard  maple ;  or  whitewood  and 
cherry  make  good  color  combinations  for  this  project.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  get  good  joints  and  strips  of  uniform  width. 
The  strips  for  this  board  should  be  about  16"  long.  After  the 
glue  has  set,  the  surface  may  be  planed  smooth  and  cut  to  the 
desired  shape. 

An  ellipse  to  fit  any  length  and  width  may  be  drawn  by 
stretching  a  loop  of  cord  tightly  around  small  brads  driven  in 
at  the  points  b — d — d  Fig.  30  C,  and  swinging  a  pencil  around 
in  the  loop  as  at  D.  Points  d — d  are  located  and  set  off  with  a 
piece  of  paper  or  compass  as  shown  at  B. 

DRAWING  BOARD 

Drawing  boards  are  usually  made  of  thin  lumber  and  need 
some  device  to  keep  them  from  warping.  Fig.  31  shows  the 
batten  construction  for  one  type  of  drawing  board.  Good  edge 
jointing  is  very  important  on  account  of  cracks  interfering  with 
the  drawings.  The  battens  are  fastened  by  screws  passed 
through  washers  sunk  in  auger  bit  holes.  The  joints  for  the 
screws  on  the  outer  boards  should  be  elongated  to  allow  for  the 
contraction  of  the  wood  as  it  dries  out.  Otherwise  the  screws 
will  break  the  glued  strips  apart  and  leave  cracks. 

PASTRY  BOARD 

A  pastry  board  is  apt  to  warp  because  it  becomes  damp  and 
then  dries  out.  The  boards  forming  the  pastry  board  are  first 
glued  together.  The  ends  are  then  squared  and  a  tongue  cut 
across  each  end.  A  strip  in  which  the  grain  runs  lengthwise  and 
having  a  groove  corresponding  to  the  tongue  on  the  end  of  the 
board  is  glued  on  to  the  tongue.  It  is  very  essential  that  well 
seasoned  lumber  is  used  in  this  project. 


128 


WOODWORKING 


CHECKER  BOARD  FIG. 33 


'Stop  chamfer 


PEDESTALS   FIG. 34 


EDGE  JOINTING  PROJECTS  129 

CHECKER  BOARD 

A  checker  board  may  be  made  by  gluing  four  strips  of  a 
dark  wood,  such  as  black  walnut,  alternately  with  four  strips  of 
a  white  wood  such  as  hard  maple  or  birch.  These  strips  should 
be  of  a  uniform  width.  If  the  strips  are  made  2"  wide,  they 
should  be  about  19"  or  20"  long  to  allow  for  waste  in  sawing. 
After  the  glue  has  set,  one  end  should  be  planed  square.  Cross 
strips  the  same  width  as  the  original  strips  should  be  laid  off 
across  this  glued  up  board  as  at  A  Fig.  33  allowing  from  j£"  to 
jV  f°r  the  saw  kerfs  and  squaring  up  the  edges.  These  strips 
should  be  planed  to  the  required  width.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  edges  square  so  that  they  may  be  glued  together. 
Every  second  strip  should  be  turned  end  for  end  as  shown  in, 
B,  Fig.. 33,  so  that  the  dark  squares  alternate  with  the  light  ones. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  get  the  strips  planed  exactly  2" 
wide.  Otherwise  the  edges  will  not  match  when  the  alternate 
strips  are  turned  end  for  end.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  fixing 
a  jig  so  that  the  strips  can  only  be  planed  to  the  desired  width. 
See  page  155  for  suggestions  for  making  jigs. 

Eight  of  these  strips  are  needed  to  make  a  complete  checker- 
board pattern.  A  border  of  wood  carefully  mitered  at  the 
corners  should  be  added  around  the  pattern  and  the  entire  top 
and  bottom  planed  smooth.  The  checker  board  should  then  be 
finished  with  shellac. 

PEDESTAL 

A  hollow  pedestal  demands  very  accurate  edge  jointing. 
Fig.  34  shows  two  simple  designs  for  pedestals.  The  columns 
of  each  pedestal  are  made  hollow  by  gluing  four  boards  to- 
gether. The  top  should  be  made  of  \y%"  or  1^4"  lumber.  It  is 
fastened  to  the  column  by  nailing  a  strip  about  an  inch  square 
to  both  the  top  and  the  column,  in  the  angle  between  the  two, 
forming  a  molding  around  the  top  of  the  column.  In  the  column 
with  sloping  sides,  the  edges  of  this  angle  strip  must  be  beveled 
to  fit  the  angle  formed  by  the  side  and  the  top. 

The  base  may  be  attached  to  the  column  by  screwing  the 
upper  base  board  to  the  column  and  the  lower  board  to  the  upper 
board  from  the  under  side.  The  corner  blocks  should  be  glued 
and  screwed  to  the  corners  of  the  lower  board.  The  height  of  a 
pedestal  varies  from  28  to  40  inches,  according  to  the  use  to 
which  it  is  to  be  put. 


130 


WOODWORKING 


if 


;-\t.n.: 
x>i 


*M£ 


e  ro// 


5— :-r-- 


End  rail 


&utt joint" 

Detail  £>-£> 


KITCHEN  TABLE     FIG.  35 


Handle 


^  Soard 
Detail  A -A 


SERVING   TRAY  FIG. 36 


131 

MITRE  JOINT  PROJECTS 

The  most  frequent  mitre  joint  is  one  of  45°.  Since  a 
diagonal  of  a  square  makes  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  sides, 
such  an  angle  can  be  easily  laid  off  and  sawed  with  a  back  saw. 
A  mitre  box  enables  one  to  saw  such  an  angle  more  accurately 
than  can  usually  be  done  without  guides. 

KITCHEN  TABLE 

The  kitchen  table  shown  in  Fig.  35  is  made  with  detachable 
legs.  The  legs  are  fastened  in  the  corner  by  a  lag  screw  which 
passes  through  a  brace  attached  to  the  end  and  side  rails.  The 
detail  of  this  construction  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  The 
braces  across  the  corners  have  the  ends  mitred  at  an  angle  of  45°. 
The  ends  of  each  brace  are  then  screwed  to  the  end  and  side 
rails.  Some  tables  have  these  braces  fitted  into  the  rails  with 
dovetail  joints.  A  lag  screw  inserted  in  one  corner  of  a  leg 
through  this  brace  will  draw  it  tightly  against  the  ends  of  the 
rails. 

The  top  of  the  table  forms  a  good  project  in  edge  jointing. 
The  joints  in  the  table  top  may  be  strengthened  by  jointing 
them  with  dowels  when  they  are  glued  together.  The  top  is 
fastened  to  the  side  and  end  rails  by  screws  countersunk  in  the 
tops  of  these  rails  from  the  inside  in  a  slanting  position. 

SERVING  TRAY 

A  serving  tray  may  be  made  by  using  strips  of  wood  with 
the  lower  edges  rabbeted  as  in  a  picture  frame  and  the  upper 
edges  beveled  toward  the  glass.  The  sides  and  ends  are  put 
together  with  mitre  joints.  See  page  154  for  suggestion  for 
making  a  clamp  for  mitre  joints  in  a  picture  frame.  The  rabbet 
is  cut  deep  enough  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  glass  and  a 
piece  of  designed  fabric  under  it.  A  thin  board  extends  under 
the  fabric  to  the  edges  of  the  tray  and  is  nailed  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  frame.  A  layer  of  felt  should  be  glued  to  the  bottom 
of  this  board  to  eliminate  noise  when  the  tray  is  set  down.  Han- 
dles should  be  screwed  to  this  frame  as  shown  in  the  detail  at 
Fig.  36. 

A  picture  frame  may  be  made  in  a  similar  way  by  cutting  a 
deeper  rabbet  in  the  frame,  leaving  off  the  handles  and  setting 
a  wood  back  in  the  rabbet  instead  of  having  it  extend  to  the 
outer  edges  of  the  bottom  of  the  frame. 


WOODWORKING 


D 


D 


12"- 
16" 


See  deta//' 

A 


1 


B 


/7^  which  marks 


Placed  in  holt 
a/ready  bored 


Detail  of  dowel  marker 


FIG.  37 


133 
MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS 

The  details  for  laying  out  and  making  a  mortise  and  tenon 
joint  are  given  on  page  90.  This  is  one  of  the  strongest  joints 
that  can  be  made.  It  may  be  made  more  secure  by  boring  a 
hole  through  the  outer  piece  and  the  tenon  and  inserting  a 
dowel  in  the  hole.  Fine  furniture  often  has  the  dowels  show- 
ing on  the  outside  to  indicate  the  quality  of  construction. 


H      MISSION  STOOLS 

A  mission  stool  offers  many  opportunities  for  variation  in 
structure  and  design.  A,  Fig.  37,  shows  a  footstool  9"  high, 
13"  wide  and  16"  long.  It  is  joined  with  mortise  and  tenon 
joints  (See  page  90).  On  account  of  the  small  size  of  the  legs, 
the  tenons  must  overlap  in  the  center  of  the  leg.  A  portion  is 
cut  out  of  the  lower  side  of  one  tenon  and  a  similar  piece  cut 
out  of  the  upper  side  of  the  other  tenon  as  shown  in  the  detail 
of  the  joint  in  the  illustration.  This  makes  a  much  stronger 
joint  than  cutting  all  of  the  lap  from  one  tenon.  A  mortise  and 
tenon  joint  may  be  made  much  stronger  by  nailing  or  doweling 
from  the  inside  of  each  leg  through  each  tenon  after  it  has  been 
glued.  The  top  of  this  stool  may  be  upholstered  or  caned.  For 
the  details  of  these  processes  see  page  62. 

A  separate  frame  must  be  made  for  the  top  of  design  A  when 
it  is  caned.  Design  B  is  one  which  may  have  a  woven  or  caned 
top  without  making  a  separate  frame  for  it.  The  side  rail  is  set 
low  on  the  legs  and  a  dowel  is  placed  near  the  upper  end  for  a 
support  for  the  woven  top.  This  design  makes  a  double  seat. 

Design  C  has  the  side  rail  eliminated  and  two  dowels  placed 
on  each  side.  This  enables  one  to  weave  a  seat  consisting  of  a 
single  layer,  because  the  ends  can  be  carried  around  the  lower 
dowel  and  back  up  over  the  outside  of  the  upper  dowel. 

Design  D  shows  a  dowel  construction  in  which  two  dowel 
pins  are  used  in  each  butt  joint  instead  of  a  mortise  and  tenon 
joint.  A  set  of  dowel  markers  are  desirable  in  using  this  con- 
struction in  order  to  get  the  holes  in  the  legs  and  the  ends  of 
the  rails  accurately  centered.  A  dowel  marker  is  placed  in  each 
hole  in  an  end  of  a  side  rail  and  the  rail  is  tapped  with  a  hammer 
after  it  is  in  position  over  the  leg.  The  spur  on  each  marker 
marks  the  center  of  each  of  the  opposite  holes  in  the  leg.  See 
page  156  for  doweling  trick  when  dowel  markers  are  not  avail- 
able. This  design  also  shows  a  tapered  leg  and  a  variation  in 
the  shape  of  the  side  rails. 


134 


WOODWORKING 


With    or  without 
mirror 


burr  BRACE 
CONSTRUCTION 


SLOT  CONSTRUCTION 


MORTISE 


TENON 


CONSTRUCTION 


C05TUMER5      FlG     38 


MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS        135 

COSTUMER 

The  common  type  of  costumer  consists  of  a  square  post, 
usually  containing  four  hooks,  attached  to  a  base  having  four 
legs  or  projections  which  are  braced  to  the  post.  This  type  of 
costumer  is  so  easily  designed  and  constructed  that  a  working 
drawing  of  it  is  not  given  in  this  text. 

Fig.  38  gives  the  details  for  a  much  more  convenient  cos- 
tumer. This  costumer  consists  of  two  side  strips  1"  x  3"  x  69", 
joined  to  three  cross  bars  with  mortise  and  tenon  joints.  The 
space  between  the  two  upper  cross  bars  may  be  left  open  or  a 
mirror  may  be  placed  in  it.  If  a  mirror  is  used,  it  should  be  pur- 
chased before  the  frame  is  made  so  that  the  opening  may  be 
made  the  right  size  to  fit  the  mirror.  A  mirror  10"  x  14"  is  a 
standard  size  and  works  in  well  with  this  design.  The  edges  of 
the  cross  pieces  and  sides  around  the  mirror  should  be  rabbeted 
before  gluing  them  together.  A  thin  board  or  pasteboard  should 
be  placed  over  the  back  of  the  mirror  to  protect  it. 

The  space  between  the  lower  and  middle  cross  bars  should 
be  broken  with  a  group  of  "fillers,"  made  of  ^j"xl^"  or 
l/2"xll/2"  material.  These  "fillers"  should  be  fastened  with 
shallow  mortise  and  tenon  joints  and  be  grouped  in  a  pleasing 
arrangement.  A  group  of  three  of  these  "fillers"  is  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

The  side  strips  may  be  fastened  and  braced  to  the  bases  in 
a  variety  of  ways.  These  bases  may  be  3"  x  3"  pieces,  hollowed 
out  on  the  lower  side  and  attached  to  the  side  strips  by  means  of 
long  screws.  The  bases  may  also  be  made  of  \%"  boards  with 
blocks  glued  to  the  bottoms.  The  sides  must  be  firmly  braced 
with  the  bases.  A  good  design  for  braces  for  this  kind  of  base 
is  also  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  two  lower  detail  drawings  of 
bases  show  a  slot  construction  fitting  over  a  thin  base  board  and 
also  a  mortise  and  tenon  construction  for  the  base  and  side 
strips. 

From  3  to  6  hooks  may  be  arranged  on  each  side  of  the 
costumer  around  the  mirror.  This  gives  much  more  room  than 
can  be  secured  on  a  costumer  with  a  single  post.  The  hooks 
should  be  of  a  finish  that  will  harmonize  well  with  the  color 
of  the  stain  used  on  the  woodwork  of  the  costumer. 

One  can  easily  modify  this  design  to  include  an  umbrella 
rack  at  the  base.  This  should  be  placed  on  the  side  next  to 
the  wall  so  that  the  front  of  the  costumer  is  clear  for  hanging 
long  cloaks  and  overcoats  on  it. 


136 


WOODWORKING 


f  \ 

/                     ^k  —  Composition 
\                           I           board  fthick 

v  —  -___~ 

Detail  of  frame 

d 

< 

'< 

V 

r 

c: 

- 

'i 

v. 

3 

n  *    •*  *•                                                 T 

i 

-»- 

1  . 

MOVABLE.  BULLETIN  BOARD 

|;^f   '       '         FIG.  39           •            -       £ 

MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS        137 

MOVABLE  BULLETIN  BOARD 

A  movable  bulletin  board  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  equip- 
ment of  any  school  room.  Fig.  39  shows  a  rectangular  shaped 
bulletin  board  with  both  sides  available  for  mountings.  A  group 
of  these  boards  or  frames  arranged  in  a  row  and  fastened  to- 
gether at  the  top  makes  an  excellent  space  for  a  room  exhibit. 
Several  rows  of  these  boards,  arranged  in  a  large  room  will 
provide  enough  space  for  an  exhibit  for  a  whole  school.  The 
advantages  of  such  a  series  of  frames  for  exhibit  purposes  over 
a  wall  exhibit  are:  (1)  the  frame  lends  itself  to  better  advantage 
for  artistic  decoration ;  (2)  the  exhibit  does  not  have  to  be  hung 
up  in  a  hurry,  but  one  frame  may  be  finished  at  a  time  and  set 
away  in  a  vacant  room  until  the  day  of  the  exhibit;  (3)  more 
time  may  be  given  to  the  artistic  arrangement  of  the  material; 
and  (4)  the  bases  may  be  taken  off  and  the  frames  crated  for 
shipment  to  a  fair  or  other  distant  point  where  the  exhibits  of 
various  schools  are  placed  in  competition. 

The  main  part  of  the  frame  is  put  together  with  mortise  and 
tenon  joints.  The  sides  and  ends  of  this  frame  are  grooved 
Y*,"  wide  and  y2"  deep  and  a  panel  of  y±"  composition  board 
is  set  in  this  groove.  The  mortise  and  tenon  joints  are  then 
glued  and  doweled  to  make  them  firm  and  hold  the  frame  square. 

The  bases  are  slightly  hollowed  out  on  the  bottom  to  make 
the  frame  more  stable  on  an  uneven  floor.  The  bases  are  at 
least  26"  in  length  and  are  fastened  to  the  bottoms  of  the  sides 
by  long  screws  countersunk  in  the  bottom  of  the  base.  Braces 
are  fastened  on  both  the  side  pieces  and  the  bases  with  blued 
screws.  The  frames  are  easily  packed  for  shipment  in  a  crate 
by  loosening  the  bottom  screw  and  the  top  screws  of  the 
braces  and  sliding  the  braces  off.  When  they  are  set  up  only 
the  bottom  screw  and  those  in  the  braces  need  to  be  set  in 
place  and  tightened. 

This  project  makes  an  excellent  factory  project  for  a  class 
when  a  considerable  number  of  these  frames  are  to  be  made, 
by  having  different  groups  of  workmen  perform  different  opera- 
tions in  the  construction  of  all  of  the  frames. 

A  stationary  bulletin  board  to  be  attached  to  the  wall  may 
be  made  in  a  similar  way,  leaving  off  the  legs. 

Both  the  frame  and  the  mounting  board  should  be  painted. 
A  more  artistic  effect  can  be  obtained  by  painting  the  frame  a 
darker  color  but  one  that  harmonizes  well  with  the  color  of  the 
composition  board. 


138 


WOODWORKING 


FLY  SCREEN  FIG. 40 


FLY  TRAP 
FiG.4l 


Screen  w/'re-Jo/d  on  dotted  lints 


FLY  SWATTER  FIG. 42 


MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS        139 

FLY  SCREEN 

Fly  screens  may  be  more  quickly  made  with  cross  lap 
joints,  but  a  good  workman  prefers  to  make  them  with  mortise 
and  tenon  joints.  The  dimensions  of  a  screen  vary  with  the 
size  of  the  window  casing.  Fig.  40  shows  a  Well  proportioned 
screen.  The  cross  bar  in  the  middle  is  omitted  in  small  screens. 
The  wire  is  usually  put  on  first  by  tacking,  then  by  nailing  a 
rounded  strip  over  the  edge  of  the  wire.  In  placing  the  wire, 
one  end  should  be  fastened  first,  care  being  taken  that  the 
cross  wires  are  parallel  to  the  nailing  strip.  The  wire  should 
then  be  stretched  and  the  opposite  strip  nailed  in  place.  The  two 
sides  may  then  be  nailed  on  in  the  same  way.  If  an  end  and 
then  a  side  are  nailed  on  before  the  next  end  is  nailed  the  wire 
is  apt  to  "buckle."  The  bottom  of  a  screen  is  beveled  to  fit 
the  sill  of  the  window  casing. 

FLY  TRAP 

Not  only  is  it  desirable  to  keep  the  flies  out  of  the  house, 
but  it  is  also  desirable  to  kill  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  Fig. 
41  shows  a  convenient  and  easily  constructed  fly  trap.  The 
frame  may  be  made  with  common  butt  joints  and  covered  with 
fly  screening.  The  top  should  be  made  of  boards,  the  central 
one  being  movable  so  that  the  dead  flies  may  be  removed  occa- 
sionally. A  conical  projection  of  screen  wire  with  a  small  open- 
ing in  the  top  is  placed  over  a  hole  in  the  base,  about  6"  in 
diameter.  A  dish  of  sweetened  water  is  placed  under  this  hole 
to  attract  the  flies.  They  fly  upward  and  enter  the  trap  through 
the  hole  and  will  stay  in  the  trap,  because  they  will  not  crawl 
downward  through  the  hole. 

FLY  SWATTER 

A  fly  swatter  may  be  made  out  of  a  piece  of  screen  wire 
The  wire  should  be  folded  on  the  dotted  lines  as 
shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  laps  should  be  sewed  with  strong  string. 
This  swatter  may  be  mounted  in  a  handle  in  which  a  saw  kerf 
has  been  cut,  by  nailing  or  riveting  the  sides  of  the  handle  to- 
gether over  the  end  of  the  screen. 

The  edges  of  this  swatter  should  be  covered  with  binding 
tape  in  order  to  prevent  scratching  the  furniture  when  the 
swatter  hits  it.  The  girls  of  the  sewing  class  may  co-operate 
in  making  this  project. 


140 


WOODWORKING 


B 


Drawer- 
way 


—. 


.•c 


Drawer  detail 


Section  A 


Sect/on  B 


S/de  rail- 


Drawerway 

Bottom  front 
ra/7 


Sect/on     C 


LIBRARY 

FIG.  43 


MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS        141 

LIBRARY  TABLE 

A  library  table  is  a  difficult  woodworking  project  and  should 
only  be  attempted  after  the  worker  has  had  a  great  deal  of 
experience  in  making  smaller  articles  involving  the  same  kinds 
of  joints. 

The  frame  should  be  made  first  because  the  top  will  tend 
to  warp  unless  it  is  immediately  fastened  to  the  frame.  The 
legs  of  a  library  table  should  vary  from  2^"  square  to  3"  square, 
depending  on  the  design  and  size  of  the  table.  The  standard 
height  of  a  table  is  30". 

The  table  top  should  be  from  1"  to  1J4"  in  thickness.  It 
may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  legs  or  each  leg  may  be  beveled  to 
a  point  at  the  top  and  the  top  of  the  table  set  down  level  with  the 
lower  edge  of  the  bevel,  the  corners  being  cut  out  for  the  projec- 
tions of  the  legs  as  shown  at  F,  Fig.  43.  The  top  is  fastened  to 
the  frame  by  rabbeted  blocks,  screwed  to  the  top  and  turned  into 
grooves  cut  in  the  rails  as  shown  in  section  A.  These  blocks 
allow  the  top  to  contract  and  expand  without  pulling  the  joints 
apart. 

The  design  of  a  library  table  is  affected  to  a  large  extent  by 
grouping  and  shaping  the  slats  in  the  end.  Four  designs  for  the 
end  are  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  shelf  may  be  mortised 
into  each  cross  piece  and  fastened  with  blued  screws  or  it  may 
be  mortised  entirely  through  the  cross  pieces  and  fastened  by 
screws  from  the  bottom  of  the  cross  piece.  A  much  easier  con- 
struction than  either  of  the  preceding  is  to  screw  strips  about 
1"  square  and  2"  less  in  length  than  the  width  of  the  shelf,  to 
the  cross  pieces  below  the  end  of  the  shelf  and  then  screw  the 
shelf  to  these  strips. 

Plenty  of  drawer  room  is  very  desirable  in  a  library  table. 
This  design  has  two  drawers  occupying  almost  the  entire  space 
in  the  table.  They  are  separated  in  the  center  by  a  narrow  up- 
right strip  which  is  mortised  to  the  bottom  and  top  rails.  These 
drawers  slide  on  a  rail  which  is  fastened  across  the  frame  just 
beneath  the  drawer.  The  front  of  each  drawer  is  fastened  to 
the  sides  of  the  drawer  by  a  blind  dove-tail  joint  or  a  rabbet 
joint  in  which  the  sides  are  nailed  to  the  front  strip.  The  rabbet 
joint  is  the  easier  to  make  and  is  usually  used  on  cheaply  con- 
structed tables.  The  bottom  of  the  drawer  is  fitted  into  a 
groove  extending  across  the  front  and  along  both  sides.  The 
back  of  the  drawer  is  fastened  to  the  sides  with  a  dado  joint 
and  rests  upon  top  of  the  bottom. 


142 


WOODWORKING 


fl 


TOP    Vitw 


4    0 


FRONT    VIE.W 


PORCH  SWINGS 
Fie.  44 


i 


]S4 
1 


TAJ 


MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT  PROJECTS        143 

PORCH  SWING 

The  essential  features  of  a  porch  swing  are:  (1)  that  it  is 
strongly  built  and  (2)  that  it  is  comfortable.  There  are  two 
general  types  of  porch  swings,  one  with  vertical  slats  in  the 
back  and  the  other  with  horizontal  slats.  Since  the  construction 
with  horizontal  slats  lends  itself  to  a  curved  back  and  is  there- 
fore more  comfortable,  it  is  used  in  the  design  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

The  horizontal  slats  may  vary  in  width  to  suit  the  design 
worked  out  by  the  student.  Those  used  in  the  swing  shown  in 
the  illustration  are  }/2"x3"x48",  with  1"  spaces  between  them. 
These  slats  may  be  nailed  on  with  heavy  brads  which  are  set 
below  the  surface  so  that  they  will  not  catch  on  the  clothing. 

The  side  and  end  rails  may  be  fastened  to  the  upright  2  x  2s 
with  mortise  and  tenon  joints  or  they  may  be  bolted  to  these 
rails  as  shown  in  end  B  in  the  illustration.  The  arm  rest  is 
fastened  to  the  uprights  with  screws.  Slats  may  be  used  to  fill 
up  the  space  in  the  ends  between  the  arm  rests  and  the  bottom 
rails. 

The  three  cleats  on  the  back  are  screwed  at  .the  bottom  to 
the  back  uprights  and  the  back  rail.  A  notch  is  cut  in  the  back 
of  the  arm  rests  and  the  end  cleats  of  the  back  bolted  to  the 
backs  of  the  arm  rests.  A  strip  across  the  top  of  the  three 
back  cleats  braces  the  back  lengthwise.  The  cleats  on  the  back 
may  be  made  straight  or  they  may  be  curved  as  shown  in  the 
design  C  in  the  drawing.  The  seat  may  also  be  curved  in  a 
similar  way  to  make  it  more  comfortable. 

Porch  swings  are  usually  swung  by  means  of  two  chains. 
These  chains  may  be  attached  to  the  swing  in  two  ways.  The 
detail  at  D  shows  a  hook  which  may  be  attached  to  the  uprights 
with  lag  screws.  This  throws  the  points  of  support  for  the 
chains  high  on  the  swing  so  that  this  type  of  attachment  makes 
the  swing  very  stable.  Directions  for  making  these  hooks  are 
given  on  page  225.  If  a  forge  is  not  available  they  may  be  made 
by  a  blacksmith.  The  detail  at  E  shows  a  ring  hook  for  attach- 
ing the  chains  to  the  projections  of  the  bottom  rails  shown  in 
design  B.  The  directions  for  making  ring  bolts  are  also  given 
on  page  225. 

Unless  both  ceiling  hooks  can  be  screwed  into  the  joists  of 
the  ceiling  of  the  porch,  a  cross  cleat  should  be  screwed  to  the 
ceiling  and  the  hooks  screwed  through  that  to  the  ceiling  in 
order  to  give  greater  holding  power  to  these  hooks. 


144 


WOODWORKING 


•-JN 


SAW  BUCK   FIG. 45 


145 
FARM  PROJECTS 

There  are  many  useful  farm  appliances  that  can  be  made  by 
the  beginner  in  woodworking.  A  few  of  the  most  practical  of 
these  are  described  on  pages  145  to  153.  Additional  farm  projects 
are  also  described  in  the  section  on  School-Home  Projects. 

SAW  BUCK 

A  saw  buck  is  not  as  important  an  accessory  of  the  wood 
lot  as  it  was  before  the  advent  of  the  power  saw,  altho  it  is  still 
a  valuable  piece  of  apparatus  to  have  for  repair  work  and  saw- 
ing small  amounts  of  wood.  Fig.  45  shows  a  substantial  and 
easily  constructed  saw  buck.  The  legs  are  made  out  of  2"  x  3" 
material  and  are  held  together  by  a  cross  lap  joint  and  a  cross 
brace  on  each  end.  The  two  pairs  of  legs  are  held  together  by  a 
cross  bar  in  the  center  of  each  joint  and  two  cross  braces  sunk 
in  the  edges  of  the  legs.  One  leg  may  be  laid  on  top  of  the 
other  and  the  legs  spread  out  to  the  given  distance  to  mark  the 
slant  for  the  joints.  A  bit  hole  from  1"  to  1J4"  m  diameter 
should  be  'bored  through  the  center  of  each  lap  joint  and  the 
ends  of  the  cross  bar  rounded  to  fit  tightly  in  these  holes.  The 
ends  may  be  fastened  by  toe-nailing  through  the  legs  into  the 
cross  piece. 

SAW  HORSE 

Every  woodworker  should  have  at  least  two  saw  horses  of  a 
convenient  height.  Fig.  46  shows  a  very  convenient  and  sub- 
stantial saw  horse.  The  wide  top  allows  space  enough  for  a  1" 
slit  along  the  top,  which  may  be  used  for  ripping  small  pieces 
by  laying  them  lengthwise  over  this  slit.  The  slit  is  made  by 
boring  two  holes  about  19"  or  20"  apart  with  an  inch  bit  and 
sawing  out  the  rest  of  the  slit  with  a  compass  saw  and  a  rip 
saw. 

The  detail  drawing  at  A,  Fig.  46,  shows  how  the  cuts  are 
made  for  giving  the  proper  slant  to  the  legs.  The  legs  and  also 
the  cross  braces  on  the  ends  should  be  fastened  with  screws  as 
nails  will  tend  to  work  loose. 

Saw  horses  should  always  be  used  in  ripping  a*board  since 
it  is  in  a  position  for  the  saw  to  be  held  at  the  proper  angle  for 
ripping  (45°).  A  saw  should  not  be  held  perpendicular  to  a 
board  in  ripping,  which  is  the  usual  position  when  a  board  is 
held  in  a  vise  to  be  ripped. 


146 


WOODWORKING 


5/idina  board 

i_  —    ^* 


X L 


V 


12  0' 


DETAIL-GATE  LATCH 

FARM  GATES     Fio.47 


FARM  PROJECTS  147 

FARM  GATES 

The  making  of  a  farm  gate  that  will  not  sag  is  not  a  dif- 
ficult problem  if  the  braces  are  put  on  in  a  correct  way.  Fig.  47 
shows  two  methods  of  bracing  a  gate.  In  gate  B  a  single  brace 
is  used.  If  only  one  brace  is  used,  it  should  run  from  the  upper 
corner  near  the  hinge  diagonally  across  the  gate  to  the  lower 
corner  of  the  opposite  end.  This  brace  should  be  bolted  to  the 
top  and  bottom  boards  and  nailed  to  each  of  the  other  boards. 
A  brace  put  on  in  this  way  will  exert  a  pull  on  the  lower  front 
corner  and  also  on  each  board  to  which  it  is  nailed.  This  will 
tend  to  keep  the  gate  from  sagging  much  better  than  if  the 
brace  were  slanted  from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 

The  system  of  bracing  used  in  gate  A  is  very  good  because 
it  makes  use  of  the  triangular  construction  which  is  used  in 
trussing  the  supports  for  large  roofs  and  also  in  bridge  work  for 
long  spans.  This  design  is  more  difficult  to  make  than  that  in 
which  a  single  brace  is  used,  but  it  gives  a  much  more  artistic 
appearance  to  a  gate  and  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  long 
gates. 

These  gates  may  be  made  out  of  ^s"x6"  boards.  Two 
boards  should  be  used  on  each  end  and  in  the  middle  of  gate  A. 
These  cross  boards  should  be  bolted  to  the  ends  of  the  long 
boards  at  the  top  and  bottom.  Clinched  nails  will  be  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  other  joints. 

The  hinge  shown  in  the  illustration  is  a  slot  and  pin  type, 
the  details  of  which  are  given  on  page  225.  These  hinges  should 
be  bolted  to  the  top  and  bottom  boards  of  the  gate.  The  pins  are 
set  in  the  post  by  boring  a  hole  with  a  bit  slightly  smaller  than 
the  pin  and  driving  the  pin  in  this  hole.  If.  concrete  posts  are 
used,  these  pins  may  be  molded  in  the  post  at  the  proper  dis- 
tances from  the  ground. 

A  convenient  latch  for  a  farm  gate  is  shown  in  detail  in 
the  drawing  at  the  bottom  of  the  illustration.  It  consists  of  a 
board  sliding  in  the  opening  between  two  of  the  boards.  Two 
cross  strips  should  be  nailed  across  the  space  at  the  left  end  of 
this  slide.  A  wood  pin  is  placed  through  the  latch  to  move  it 
back  and  forth.  A  slot  should  be  cut  in  the  latch  to  allow  it  to 
work  back  and  forth  over  a  bolt  through  the  front  boards.  A 
notch  to  fit  the  latch  should  be  cut  in  the  post  opposite. 

The  post  to  which  the  gate  is  swung  should  be  thoroughly 
braced  to  prevent  the  free  end  of  the  gate  from  dragging  on 
the  ground. 


148 


WOODWORKING 


SIDE.  BOARD 


30" 1 


-£5 


SIDE   VIEW  OF  Box 


' 

r 

; 

1 

* 

z 

; 

•'>• 

: 

^  Gafe  rods 

. 

/  ' 

$1  3 

- 

• 

. 

>; 

JS 

'v. 

Stake 


i  Toot  rest 


-38"  or   40' 

END  VIEW 


SfaAe  iron* 
DETAIL-SIDE  OF  Box 


v 


END  VIEW  WITHOUT  BED 


DETAIL-STAKE  IKON 


COMBINATION  WAGON  Box 
FIG.  46 


FARM  PROJECTS  149 

COMBINATION  WAGON  BOX 

The  combination  wagon  box  shown  in  Fig.  48  has  three 
uses.  Side  boards  and  end  gates  may  be  added,  forming  a 
regular  sized  wagon  box.  Stakes  may  be  placed  in  the  end 
irons  and  the  bed,  without  the  side  boards,  used  as  a  wood 
rack.  By  adding  the  high  sides  and  end  gates  described  on 
page  187,  the  bed  may  be  used  to  make  a  hog  rack.  These  three 
uses  make  this  combination  bed  one  of  the  most  useful  pieces  of 
farm  equipment. 

The  bottom  of  this  bed  is  made  of  the  best  grade  of  tongue 
and  grooved  flooring,  which  is  screwed  to  four  cross  cleats  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  The  width  between  the  bolster  stakes 
of  the  running  gears  of  a  wagon  varies.  The  width  of  the  par- 
ticular wagon  for  which  this  bed  is  made  should  be  accurately 
measured  before  its  construction  is  begun.  The  sides  of  the  box 
are  made  of  2"  x  6"  boards,  surfaced  on  sides  and  edges.  These 
side  pieces  are  bolted  to  the  bottom  by  four  y^"  bolts,  the  heads 
of  which  are  countersunk  level  with  the  tops  of  the  sides.  These 
bolts  extend  through  the  flooring  and  the  cleats.  Additional 
strength  may  be  given  to  this  construction  by  nailing  the  bottom 
to  the  sides.  Foot  rests  on  the  side  of  the  box  may  be  made  by 
extending  the  two  middle  cleats  5"  beyond  the  sides  and  bolting 
a  I"x4"  board  to  the  ends  of  these  cleats. 

The  irons  for  the  sides  are  made  with  large  slots  so  that  they 
will  be  large  enough  for  the  heavy  stakes  which  are  used  for  the 
woodrack.  The  details  for  making  these  irons  are  given  on 
page  223.  These  irons  are  bolted  to  the  sides,  the  heads  of  the 
bolts  being  countersunk  level  with  the  inside  surface  of  a  side. 

The  side  boards  are  made  of  %"  boards  nailed  to  4  stakes 
which  fit  into  the  iron  slots.  This  makes  the  sides  of  the  base 
project  1"  farther  in  than  the  inside  surface  of  the  side  boards. 
The  end  gates  should  be  made  as  long  as  the  inside  distance 
between  the  side  boards,  sawing  out  a  notch  in  each  end  to  allow 
for  the  projections  of  the  side  pieces  of  the  bed.  These  end 
gates  may  be  held  in  place  by  nailing  cleats  to  the  inside  of 
each  side  board  and  clamping  the  sides  together  with  rods  at 
the  end  gates.  A  chain  may  be  used  across  the  sideboards  in 
the  middle  to  prevent  spreading  when  hauling  grain  in  the 
bulk. 

This  wagon  box,  as  well  as  the  other  farm  appliances  which 
are  exposed  to  the  weather,  should  be  painted  to  increase  its 
durability. 


150 


WOODWORKING 


PLOW  DOUBLETREE   Fis.49 


5  r 


19' 


*J 


f   T~ 
THREE  HORSE  EVENER  FIG. 50 


k— 6' 


WAGON  JACK    FIG. 5 1 


FARM  PROJECTS  151 

PLOW  DOUBLETREE 

A  plow  doubletree  may  be  easily  made  in  a  farm  workshop. 
Fig.  49  gives  the  dimensions  of  a  simple  design.  The  evener  bar 
may  be  made  of  oak  or  hickory  and  the  singletrees  should  be 
made  of  hickory  on  account  of  the  extra  strength  needed  in 
these  parts. 

The  evener  is  1>^>"  x4^4"  x42".  Triangular  strips  may  be 
cut  off  the  back  side,  thus  making  the  evener  lighter  without 
diminishing  its  strength  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  hole 
for  the  clevis  pin  should  be  put  near  the  front  edge  because  the 
strain  is  on  the  back  side  of  the  evener. 

Single  trees  I^"x3"x32"  may  be  constructed  in  a  similar 
manner.  These  singletrees  may  be  fastened  to  the  evener  with 
pieces  of  strip  iron  and  bolts.  The  clips  on  the  end  are  put  on 
by  means  of  bolts  extending  through  the  end  and  braced  by  an 
iron  strip  on  the  back  side  of  the  singletree.  The  construction 
of  these  clips  is  described  on  page  225. 


THREE-HORSE  EVENER 

The  doubletree  may  also  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  three- 
horse  evener  shown  in  Fig.  50.  The  clevis  hole  in  this  evener 
should  be  bored  19"  from  the  doubletree  attachment  and  38" 
from  the  singletree  attachment.  This  evens  up  the  load  equally 
for  the  three  horses.  Longer  irons  must  be  used  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  singletree.  Instead  of  making  the  clips  for  the 
singletrees  they  may  be  purchased  and  the  ends  of  the  single- 
trees shaped  to  fit  them. 


>  WAGON  JACK 

The  handle  of  the  wagon  jack  shown  in  Fig.  51  is  bolted 
to  the  uprights.  The  axle  is  held  in  a  raised  position  by  means 
of  a  bent  rod  or  heavy  wire  attachment.  The  notches  for  this 
attachment  may  be  made  by  boring  holes  with  a  bit  along  the 
central  line  of  an  8"  board,  A,  Fig.  51,  and  then  ripping  the 
board  through  the  centers  of  these  holes.  The  structure  of  the 
base  of  this  wagon  jack  is  simple  and  gives  a  wider  footing  than 
is  usually  found  on  a  wagon  jack  and  thus  makes  it  more  stable. 

On  account  of  the  heavy  strain  on  this  piece  of  apparatus, 
it  should  be  made  out  of  a  hard,  tough  wood.  See  page  40. 


152 


WOODWORKING 


B 


II  LL 


BROOM  OR  HAY  FORK  RACKS    FIG. 52 


4'0' 


-49 


c 


STONE.  BOAT  FIG. 53 


FARM  PROJECTS  153 


BROOM  OR  HAY  FORK  HOLDER 

A  rack  to  hold  brooms  or  hay  forks  is  a  convenience  on  any 
farm.  Fig.  52  shows  three  designs  for  such  racks.  Design  A 
consists  of  two  horizontal  bars  nailed  or  bolted  to  an  upright 
piece  wide  enough  to  allow  the  handles  of  the  brooms  or  forks 
to  be  put  between  them,  but  not  wide  enough  to  let  them  slip 
through.  These  bars  may  be  lengthened  to  hold  any  number 
of  forks  or  brooms.  Design  B  shows  another  type  of  bar,  ar- 
ranged on  a  vertical  piece  in  the  same  manner.  This  bar  is  more 
solidly  braced  than  the  one  shown  in  A.  The  arrangement 
shown  in  B,  if  made  strong  enough,  may  also  be  used  for  a 
harness  rack.  Design  C  is  the  more  conventional  type  of  design 
for  a  broom  holder.  This  may  also  be  used  for  a  hay  fork  holder 
by  making  the  openings  large  enough. 

Since  these  holders  will  be  used  indoors,  they  need  not  be 
painted  because  they  are  not  exposed  to  the  weather.  If  one  of 
these  designs  is  used  in  the  house,  however,  it  should  be  stained 
or  painted  to  match  the  woodwork  of  the  room  in  which  it  is 
used. 


STONE  BOAT 

Many  farms  in  the  glacial  region  have  large  stones  left  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Too  much  labor  is  required  to  lift  these 
heavy  stones  into  a  wagon.  A  stone  boat,  which  is  merely  a  low 
sled  consisting  of  two  flat  runners  with  boards  nailed  across 
them  as  shown  in  Fig.  53,  makes  a  convenient  means  for  hauling 
them  off  the  land. 

These  stone  boats  are  useful  in  other  ways.  They  are  very 
convenient  for  use  in  hauling  a  plow  or  harrow  to  a  field.  Seed 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  etc.,  may  also  be  conveniently  hauled  to  the 
field  and  save  much  useless  lifting  into  and  from  a  high  wagon. 
In  the  autumn,  these  stone  boats  are  often  useful  in  gathering 
corn  in  low,  marshy  land  when  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of 
rain  and  the  ground  is  too  soft  to  support  a  regular  wagon.  If  it 
is  made  long  enough,  stakes  may  be  set  in  each  end  and  it  may 
be  used  to  haul  in  fodder  from  the  field. 

The  runners  may  be  made  out  of  square  timbers  about 
5"  x  5"  or  they  may  be  round  pieces  cut  from  a  small  tree.  The 
boards  should  be  securely  nailed  to  these  runners.  The  curve 
in  the  front  should  be  gradual  as  the  stone  boat  pulls  more 
easily  than  when  the  front  is  too  blunt. 


154 


JIGS  AND  TRICKS 

There  are  many  ways  of  shortening  the  time  and  simplifying 
the  operations  on  wood  working  projects,  provided  an  operation 
is  duplicated  a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  make  it  worth  while 
to  construct  jigs  for  holding,  guiding  or  controlling  the  laying 
out  or  cutting  of  materials.  Some  jigs  can  be  made  adjustable 
so  that  they  will  fit  materials  of  different  proportions,  requiring 
the  same  kind  of  operations.  It  is  well  to  have  such  jigs  avail- 
able so  that  when  a  rush  job  is  needed  much  time  can  be  saved 
in  the  laying  out  and  making  even  if  the  design  of  the  project 
has  to  be  slightly  altered  to  suit  the  supply  of  jigs. 

There  have  also  been  evolved  many  easy  ways  of  doing  cer- 
tain operations  or  simple  ways  of  holding  materials  while  they 
are  being  worked  upon. 

The  drawings  which  follow  offer  a  few  suggestions  as  to 
the  use  of  jigs  and  tricks. 


TENON  CUTTING  JIG 

"D 


B 


BORING  TRICK 


Tenon  Cutting  Jig.  A — Saw.  B — Wood  on  which  tenon  is  being1  cut. 
C — Guide  block.  D — Removable  block.  E — Cardboard  the  thickness  of  saw 
blade.  .F — Back  block.  G — Saw  kerf.  H — Saw  kerf  made  in  mitre  box. 
I — Wing-  nuts  and  bolts.  By  changing-  the  size  of  the  removable  block, 
various  sizes  of  tenons  can  be  cut  with  this  jig. 

Boring:  Trick.  A — Brace  and  bit.  B — Hand  screws.  C — Boards  to  be 
doweled  together. 


ADJUSTABLE  MITERED  FRAME  CLAMP 


Adjustable  Mltered  Frame  Clamp.  A — Arms.  B — Holding  blocks.  C — 
Saw  kerf  to  take  up  excess  glue  from  joint.  D — Hand  screw.  E — Frame. 
7" — Holes  for  changing  position  of  holding  blocks  to  fit  any  frame. 


JIGS 


155 


EDGE  PLANING  JIG 


SAWING  JIG 


Planing  Jig.  When  a  number  of  duplicate  pieces  are  to  be  edged  to  a 
given  width,  this  jig  insures  a  straight,  square  edge.  A — Plane  track.  B — 
Cutting  limit  of  plane  blade.  C — Side  guides  for  keeping  plane  straight 
and  square.  D — Space  for  board.  E — Board  being  edged. 

Sawing  Jig.  A — Angle  irons  controlling  depth  of  cut.  B — Saw  slot. 
C — Block  clamped  against  back  of  mitre  box  to  control  position  of  cut. 
D — Hand  screw  holding  block. 


MORTISE  TEMPLET 


BORING  Box 


Mortise    Templet.      A — Table    leg.      B — Metal    templet    for    laying    out 
mortise.     C — Opening  the  size  of  the  tenon. 

Boring  Box.     A — Guide  wall.     B — Guide  holes.     C — Brace  and  bit. 
Clamp   screw.      E — Guide   block.      F — Stock   being  bored. 


BORING      GAUGE 


B 


Boring  Gauge.     A — 

Auger  bit.  B — Stock 
being  bored.  C — Depth 
gauge.-  D — Set  screw. 

Depth  Gauges.  A— 
Dado  joint.  B — Depth 
testing  block.  C — Gauge 
screws.  D — Auger  bit 
hole. 


DEPTH  GAUGES 


156 


JIGS  AND  TRICKS 


Doweling  Trick.  A — Small  nails.  B- — Edges  which  have  been  jointed. 
C — Hand  screw  for  guiding-  the  boards  straight.  D — Nails  with  heads  cut 
off.  E — Holes  punched  by  nails.  F — Pencil  marks  showing  sides  which 
come  together.  When  nails  are  pulled  out,  the  locations  for  dowels  are 
marked  on  both  boards. 


PEG  or  CHECKER.   SAWING  JIG 


WOOD  FASTENING  DEVISE 


Peg  or  Checker  Sawing1  Jig.  A — Large  auger  bit  hole.  B — Saw  kerf. 
C — Distance  between  saw  kerf  and  edge  of  hole,  or  length  of  peg  to  be 
sawed  off.  D — 'Dowel  rod. 

"Wood  Fastening  Device.  A  dowel  rod  inserted  as  above  illustrated  will 
prevent  screws  from  pulling  out  of  end  grain  wood. 


CURVE    CUTTING  TRICK 


Curve  Cutting  Trick.  Cutting  to  curved  lines  without  a  turning  or 
coping  saw  can  be  accomplished  as  above  illustrated.  A — Saw  kerfs.  B — 
Chisel. 


TRICKS 


157 


HOLDING    TRICK 


Holding  Trick.  When  a  board  is  too  long  to  be  held  in  a  vise,  a  hand 
screw  clamped  onto  the  end  of  the  board  as  above  illustrated  will  keep  the 
board  in  position. 


CHAMFERING 


BORING  TRICK 


Chamfering  Trick.  A  board  clamped  in  a  hand  screw  and  vise  as  above 
illustrated,  may  be  held  at  any  angle. 

Boring  Trick.  Narrow  stock  may  be  kept  from  splitting-  when  holes 
are  being  bored  through  it,  if  it  is  tightly  clamped  between  the  jaws  of  a 
hand  screw  or  vise,  during  the  operation. 


SAWING  TRICK 


B 


Sawing  Trick.  The  edges  of  a  dado  joint  can  be  accurately  sawed  if  a 
square  edged  block  is  clamped  along  the  sawing  line  and  the  saw  held 
tightly  against  it.  A  shows  the  first  cut.  B  shows  the  gauge  block  being 
set  to  fit  the  stock.  Once  this  is  set,  the  stock  is  removed  and  the  second 
cut  made. 


158 

THE  FACTORY  CLASS 

In  constructing  a  wood  working  project,  one  gets  a  fairly 
good  idea  concerning  the  uses  of  tools  even  though  he  does  not 
have  enough  experience  to  become  skilful  in  their  manipulation. 
Skill  and  speed  are  acquired  only  by  repeated  practice.  If  it  is 
desired  to  make  a  quantity  of  any  one  kind  of  project  it  can  be 
made  more  quickly  and  the  results  will  be  more  uniform  if  the 
class  is  organized  as  a  factory,  each  workman  to  do  his  group 
of  operations  on  all  projects  rather  than  to  make  one  complete 
project.  In  this  kind  of  a  class  the  unskilful  worker  can  be 
given  the  easiest  assignment  while  the  most  skilful  worker  can 
be  assigned  the  most  difficult  task. 

Suppose,  for  example,  it  is  desired  to  make  twenty-five  plant 
stands  according  to  the  design  on  page  118  and  that  only  ten 
boys  are  in  the  class.  The  best  all  around  workman  can  be 
appointed  foreman  and  he  should  make  a  complete  cutting  bill 
showing  how  many  pieces  of  each  size  it  will  take  for  the  entire 
order.  This  cutting  bill  should  be  checked  by  another  workman 
and  finally  by  the  teacher. 

Next,  the  various  operations  necessary  to  transform  lumber 
into  these  finished  stands  must  be  tabulated.  In  this  example 
they  are  as  follows: 

1.  Getting  out  material. 

2.  Laying  out  sizes. 

3.  Sawing  out  stock. 

4.  Surfacing  broad  faces. 

5.  Planing  working  edges  of  legs,  in  a  jig. 

6.  Planing  second  edges  of  legs,  in  a  jig. 

7.  Sawing  working  ends,  of  legs,  in  a  mitre  box. 

,•       8.  Sawing  legs  to  length,  in  a  mitre  box,  with  a  jig. 
9.  Smoothing  broad  faces  of  tops  and  shelves. 

10.  Laying  out  shapes  of  tops  and  shelves. 

11.  Sawing  away  waste  wood  on  tops  and  shelves. 

12.  Smoothing  to  exact  dimensions. 

13.  Laying  out  joints  in  tops. 

14.  Cutting  out  joints  in  tops. 

15.  Locating  points  for  screws  in  legs,  using  jigs. 

16.  Boring  holes  for  screws. 

17.  Sandpapering,  using  care  not  to  narrow  the  legs  at  the 

joints. 

18.  Assembling. 

19.  Staining. 

20.  Shellacing.      • 

21.  Sanding. 

22.  Waxing. 


THE  FACTORY  CLASS  159 

23.  Bookkeeping,  tabulating  time  slips  and  recording  ma- 
terials used. 

The  assignments  are  then  made.  While  some  workmen  are 
getting  out  material,  those  unassigned  can  be  making  jigs  for 
use  in  some  of  the  operations.  Two  planing  jigs  will  be  neces- 
sary and,  since  so  many  pieces  of  the  same  size  are  to  be  used, 
more  than  one  workman  should  be  assigned  to  planning  in 
order  to  keep  the  other  "departments'*  working. 

It  is  interesting  for  each  member  of  this  factory  class  to 
keep  a  record  of  the  time,  he  spends  on  each  operation,  to  see 
if  he  increases  his  output  in  any  given  unit  of  time.  It  also 
makes  an  interesting  study  to  see  how  much  time-it  takes  to 
complete  the  entire  job. 

The  foreman  should  keep  a  careful  check  on  all  pieces, 
rejecting  those  which  cannot  be  corrected  and  noting  on  the 
workman's  time  slip  the  waste  in  material  and  the  time  lost. 

As  the  work  carries  over  frdm  day  to  day,  the  workmen 
can  be  shifted  from  one  operation  to  another,  or  if  a  workman 
proves  to  be  inefficient  in  quality  of  work  or  speed,  he  may  be 
reassigned  to  a  simpler  task. 

Bench  hooks,  bench  stops,  drawers  for  nail  cabinet,  window 
ventilators,  exhibit  screens,  etc.,  make  excellent  factory  class 
projects  since  they  are  always  needed  in  quantities  in  the  shop 
or  school. 

The  shop  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  work  is  begun  at 
one  end  of  the  room  and  the  materials  passed  from  bench  to 
bench  as  each  operation  is  completed.  It  is  sometimes  advis- 
able to  have  the  pupils  work  in  pairs  or  groups  on  certain  op- 
erations, thus  minimizing  lost  motion  and  also  hastening  the 
production. 

Much  thought  must  be  given  to  the  construction  of  jigs, 
and  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  create  jigs  or  design  im- 
provements in  those  already  made.  It  should  be  pointed  out 
that  the  jigs  in  a  class  of  this  kind,  take  the  place  of  the  power 
machinery  in  a  factory.  Pages  154  to  158  give  examples  of  jigs 
suitable  for  work  of  this  kind. 

Work  carried  on  according  to  this  factory  organization, 
if  accompanied  by  a  study  of  the  jigs  and  tools  used  in  a 
factory,  will  prove  to  be  of  intense  interest,  especially  if  the 
class  can  visit  a  factory  in  operation. 


160 


//OUStt  Tray 


Fig.  1 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 

GARDENING 

Gardening  is  one  of  the  most  popular  school-home  projects 
because  it  requires  little  equipment,  can  be  carried  on  during 
the  summer  vacation  and  yields  quick  returns.  In  connection 
with  gardening,  one  finds  a  variety  of  very  interesting  con- 
structive projects. 

In  the   northern   states,   many  plants   must  be   started  in 

house  trays  or  hotbeds  and 
transplanted  to  the  garden  when 
the  danger  of  frost  is  past.  Fig- 
ure 1  shows  a  simple  tray  which 
can  be  made  from  the  lumber 
in  a  dry  goods  box.  This  tray 
should  be  kept  in  a  room  in 
which  the  temperature  does  not 
fall  below  65°  F.  after  the  seeds 
are  planted.  It  should  be  kept 
in  front  of  a  south  window  after 
the  plants  are  up  in  order  to  give  them  as  much  sunlight  as 
possible.  The  legs  of  the  tray  should  be  made  the  same  height 
as  the  window  sill. 

The  seeds  should  be  planted  in  rows  2"  apart  and  the  plants 
later  thinned  to  2"  apart  in  each  row.  The  plants,  which  are 
taken  out  in  thinning,  may  be  transplanted  in  other  trays  or 
boxes.  A  tray  with  outside  dimensions  of  22"  x  26"  is  large 
enough  to  start  about  100  plants.  These  plants  may  be  trans- 
planted, when  large  enough,  to  a  cold  frame  and  gradually 
hardened  to  the  weather.  Transplanting  develops  more  hardy 
root  systems  and  more  thrifty  plants  are  thus  produced. 

The  hotbed  is  the  method  used  by  a  large  gardener  for 
starting  his  early  plants.  Two  methods  are  used  to  furnish 
heat  for  a  hotbed.  One  is  to  run  steam  pipes  in  an  air  space 
under  the  tray  containing  the  plants.  The  other  is  to  fill  the 
pit  below  the  soil  with  manure  which  ferments  and  supplies 
the  necessary  heat.  Since  the  steam  heating  is  only  prac- 
ticable when  plants  are  raised  on  a  large  scale,  the  manure 
type  of  hotbed  is  the  one  usually  used  by  small  growers. 

Any  style  of  glass  sash  may  be  used  to  cover  a  hotbed. 
One  can  often  buy  old  sash  in  the  neighborhood  which  will 
serve  the  purpose  fairly  well.  Standard  hotbed  sash  are  3'  x  6'. 


GARDENING 


161 


Permanent  Hotbed         Fig.  2. 


straw  or  leaves  to  prevent  it 


These  sash  can  usually  be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  they 
can  be  made  by  hand. 

Two  standard  hotbed  sash  will  provide  sufficient  space 
for  plants  for  a  small  garden.  An  excavation  6'  long,  6'  wide 
and  30"  deep  should  be  made  for  a  permanent  hotbed  of  this 
size.  Stakes  may  be  driven  in  each  corner  about  an  inch  from 
each  side  of  this  excavation  and  boards  slipped  behind  them 
and  nailed.  The  stakes  at  the  higher  end  of  the  bed  should 
project  IS"  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  lower  stakes 
in  front  should  project  12".  Fig."" 
2  shows  a  cross  section  of  a 
permanent  hotbed.  The  end 
boards  should  be  carefully 
marked  at  the  proper  slant  and 
ripped  exactly  on  the  line  in 
order  that  the  sash  may  fit 
tightly  at  the  ends.  Manure 
from  the  horse  stable  should  be 
tramped  in  the  pit  to  a  depth 
of  about  24"  to  26".  This 
manure  should  contain  plenty  o 

from  packing  soggy.  About  4"  to  6"  of  soil,  composed  of  2 
parts  of  loam  and  1  part  of  well-rotted  manure,  should  be  placed 
upon  the  manure.  The  sash  should  then  be  placed  on  the  frame 
and  the  hotbed  allowed  to  heat  for  about  three  days.  When 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  to  about  80°  F.,  the  bed  is  ready 
for  planting. 

Before  planting,  the  soil  should  be  firmly  packed.  The 
seed  should  be  planted  in  rows  from  3"  to  6"  apart,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  plants.  After  planting  the  soil  should  be 
firmed  with  a  smooth  board.  If  the  plants  are  too  thick  in  the 
rows,  they  should  be  thinned  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 
becoming  spindling. 

A  curtain  of  heavy  muslin,  a  piece  of  old  carpet  or  a  board 
cover  should  be  provided  to  cover  the  hotbed  in  cold  weather. 
The  seed  should  be  watered  often  enough  to  keep  it  from 
becoming  dry  but  not  too  often  because  too  much  water  will 
exclude  the  air  from  the  roots  of  the  young  plants. 

Proper  ventilation  and  plenty  of  light  are  necessary  to 
produce  strong,  hardy  plants.  The  sash  should  be  raised  dur- 
ing the  day  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air 
and  closed  at  night.  A  hotbed  should  always  be  watered  in 
the  morning  to  enable  the  plants  to  become  dry  before  the 
bed  is  closed  at  night.  When  the  weather  is  warm  enough, 


162 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Fig.  3 


the  sash  may  be  entirely  removed  and  the  plants  allowed  to 
harden  to  meet  outside  conditions. 

Concrete  walls  will  last  longer  than  board  walls.  See 
page  197  for  the  description  of  a  concrete  hotbed. 

A  temporary  hotbed  may  be  constructed  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  by  placing  a  pile  of  manure  about  9'  square  and 

about  18"  deep  on  top  of  the 
ground  and  thoroughly  tramp- 
ing it.  A  frame  of  the  dimen- 
sions shown  in  Fig.  3  may  then 
be  placed  on  top  of  the  pile  of 
manure  and  additional  manure 
banked  around  the  frame  to  a 
depth  of  about  6".  A  layer  of 
soil  4"  to  6"  deep  should  then 
be  placed  on  the  manure  in  the 
frame  and  the  bed  be  allowed 
to  heat  as  described  in  the  discussion  on  the  permanent  hot- 
bed. 

The  long  growing  season  of  some  vegetables  makes  it 
necessary  to  start  them  in  hotbeds.  This  is  especially  true 
of  plants  such  as  tomatoes,  eggplants,  peppers  and  other 
vegetables  of  the  same  type  when  raised  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern parts  of  the  United  States.  The  following  table  shows  the 
proper  time  to  start  and  transplant  different  vegetables  which 
are  started  in  hotbeds: 


COMMON  VEGETABLES  STARTED  IN  HOTBEDS. 


Vegetable 

Depth 
to  plant 

Seeds  for 
row  of  100  ft. 

Start  in 
hotbed 

Transplant  in 
garden 

Ready  for  use 
after  planting 

Early  Cabbage 
Cauliflower 
Celery 
Eggplant 
Early  Muskmelon 
Pepper 
Sweet  Potato 
Tomato 

%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
¥2  in. 
1    in. 
%  in. 
3    in. 
%  in. 

V4.    OZ. 
%    OZ. 

}i  oz. 
%  oz. 
%  oz. 
%  oz. 
75  slips 
%  oz. 

February 
Feb.  or  Mar. 
Mar.  or  Apr. 
March 
March 
March 
April 
Feb.  and  Mar. 

Mar.  or  Apr. 
Apr.  to  June 
May  and  June 
Apr.  and  May 
Apr.  to  June. 
May  and  June 
May  and  June 
May  and  June 

90  to  130  days 
100  to  130  days 
120  to  150  days 
100  to  140  days 
120  to  150  days 
100  to  140  days 
140  to  160  days 
100  to  140  days 

Plants  in  a  hotbed  as  well  as  those  in  a  house  tray  may 
be  hardened  off  by  transplanting  in  a  cold  frame  which  may  be 
made  in  the  same  way  as  the  board  frame  for  a  temporary 
hotbed.  No  manure  is  used  for  heating  purposes  in  a  cold 
frame.  A  cold  frame  will  be  much  more  efficient  if  placed  on 
the  south  side  of  a  building  where  it  will  be  protected.  Plants 
should  not  be  placed  in  cold  frames  in  very  cold  weather  be- 
cause they  are  apt  to  be  frozen  at  night. 


GARDENING 


163 


•Qlath 
pod 


Fig.4 


Transplanting:  The  sharpened  stick  which  is  used  in 
transplanting  is  called  a  dibble.  A  convenient  dibble  may  be 
made  from  the  handle  of  an  old  shovel  as ;•  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
If  an  old  shovel  handle  is  not  available,  a  dibble  may  be  made 
from  a  broom  stick  by  sharpening  one  end  of  a  piece  about 
10"  long  and  padding  the  other  end  to  prevent  bruises  or 
blisters  on  the  hand  when  forcing  the  dibble  into  compact  ground 
for  setting  a  large  number  of 
plants. 

TJ  J-UKI  ff-"ff  Dibbles 

How  to  use  a  dibble  cor- 
rectly: A  hole  should  be  made 
with  the  dibble  deep  enough  to 
set  the  plant  and  the  roots  of 
the  plant  placed  in  this  hole. 
With  the  dibble  held  in  a  slant- 
ing position  as  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
the  dirt  should  be  pressed  firmly 
about  the  roots  of  the  plant.  If 
the  soil  is  dry,  water  should  be 
poured  in  the  hole  left  by  the  last  stroke  of  the  dibble.  After 
the  water  is  allowed  to  settle,  loose  dirt  should  be  scraped  into 
the  hole  to  cover  up  the  wet  dirt.  This  allows  the  water  to 
get  to  the  roots  of  the  plant  more  easily  than  when  it  is  poured 
On  top  of  the  ground  around  the  plant  after  it  has  been  leveled 
off.  It  also  leaves  the  wet  dirt  covered  by  loose  dirt,  which 
prevents  a  rapid  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  thus  holds  it  for  use  by  the  plant. 

The  seeds  of  most  vegetables  are  sown  by  hand  in ,  the 
garden  and  not  transplanted.  A  drill  is  generally  used  when 
a  large  area  is  to  be  sown.  Fig.  5  shows  an  excellent  type 
of  hand  drill.  Note  the  roller  behind  the  seed  flute  to  pack 
the  ground  over  the  seed.  Note  also  the  lever  which  controls 
the  seed  opening,  making  it  possible  to  stop  the  flow  of  seed 
when  turning  at  the  ends  of  the  rows. 

The  drill  is  much  more  economical  in  the  use  of  seed ; 
it  distributes  the  seed  more  evenly  than  is  usually  done  by 
hand  and  is  much  quicker  than  hand  sowing.  The  drill  shown 
in  Fig.  5  has  a  marker  which  can  be  adjusted  for  rows  from 
6"  to  20"  apart. 

In  transplanting  plants  from  the  hotbed  and  in  sowing 
seeds  by  hand,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  marker  to  lay  out  the 
rows.  A  marker  enables  one  to  lay  off  rows  rapidly  and  also 
to  space  them  accurately.  Cultivation  with  a  one-horse  garden 
cultivator  is  much  easier  when  the  rows  are  accurately  spaced. 


164 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Garden  Drill 


•Seed  valve  rod 

Seed  box 


Fig.  5 


•Marker 


Garden  Marter 


Fig.  6  shows  a  simple  home-made  garden  marker.  This 
marker  is  made  by  cutting  1/2"  gains  for  fitting  on  from  three 
to  seven  markers.  The  centers  of  the  gains  are  spaced  12", 
18",  24"  and  36"  from  the  center  of  the  frame.  The  markers 
are  attached  to  the  frame  by  carriage  bolts,  one  in  each  marker. 
This  enables  one  to  easily  change  the  markers  to  give  the  various 
spaces  between  the  rows  needed  for  the  different  kinds  of  vege- 
tables. 

The  illustration  shows  the  marker  set  to  mark  rows  12" 
apart.  This  is  a  suitable  distance  for  such  small  vegetables  as 
radishes,  beets,  onions  and  lettuce  if  they  are  cultivated  with 
a  hand  plow  or  hoe.  This  marker  will  also  make  five  marks 
18"  apart  and  three  marks  either  24"  or  36"  apart.  A  stretched 
cord  should  be  used  to  get  the  first  rows  straight.  The  in- 
side runner  may  then  be  made  to  trace  the  last  mark  to  keep 
the  rest  of  the  rows  straight.  If  the  pupil  wishes  to  have  rows 
at  other  spaces  than  those  indicated,  he  may  cut  his  gains  at 
other  intervals. 

A  roller  is  a  valuable  tool  for  any  gardener  to  possess.  Some 
seeds  as  celery,  turnips  and  onions  are  planted  very  shallow  and 
will  not  germinate  well  if  the  top  soil  is  too  loose  and  dries  out. 

A  good  hand  roller  may  be  made  by  cutting  a  wood  cyl- 
inder 15"  to  18"  long  from  a  log  12"  or  13"  in  diameter. 
This  roller  will  weigh  about  50  or  60  pounds  and  will  be 
heavy  enough  for  light  rolling  over  newly  planted  seeds. 
Two  handles  may  be  fastened  to  the  log  with  machine  bolts 
as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  These  bolts  are  preferable  to  carriage 
bolts  because  they  are  round  up  to  the  head  and  thus  make 
a  better  axle.  Holes  should  be  bored  in  the  center  of  each 
end  slightly  smaller  than  the  bolts  that  are  to  be  used  for  the 
axles.  Hard  wood  strips  will  wear  longer  for  the  handles  than 
soft  wood.  The  bolts  used  as  axles  should  be  kept  oiled  or 
greased  the  same  as  any  other  axle. 


GARDENING 


165 


Garden  Roller 


Fig- 7 


Cucumber  Screen 


Screen  wire 


Fig.6 


A  I"x2"  strip  with  the  edges  rounded  with  a  spoke  shave 
will  serve  for  a  handle.  One  or  two  other  boards  should  be 
nailed  to  the  handles  for  bracing  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
This  roller  will  be  found  about  the  right  weight  for  rolling 
the  tops  of  sweet  potato  ridges  when  they  have  not  had  time 
to  settle  before  the  plants  are  ready  to  transplant. 

A  heavier  roller  for  lawns  or  tennis  courts  may  be  made 
of  concrete.  See  page  206  of  the  section  on  concrete  for  the 
details  of  making  a  concrete  roller. 

Cucumbers  and  melons  are  often  destroyed  when  they  are 
young  and  tender  by  a  striped  beetle.  Where  only  a  few  vines 
are  raised  for  home  use,  they  may  be  protected  by  a  frame 
covered  by  a  screen  wire  or  mosquito  netting.  These  frames 
should  be  made  about  11"  to  13"  square  and  4"  to  5"  high. 
The  screen  should  be  stretched  over  the  frame  and  nailed 
on  with  wood  strips  to  make  sure  that  there  are  no  openings 
through  which  the  small  beetles  may  crawl.  Boxes  or  waste 
lumber  should  be  used  in  making  such  projects  in  keeping 
down  expense.  These  cover  frames  should  be  removed  when 
the  plants  are  sufficiently  hardened  to  prevent  destruction  by 
the  beetle  and  stored  for  use  another  year.  With  proper  care 
these  frames  should  last  several  seasons. 

A  garden,  when  used  continuously,  should  be  fertilized 
yearly.  In  using  garden  manure,  the  ground  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  coat  which  should  be  plowed  or  spaded  under 
to  allow  it  to  thoroughly  rot.  In  applying  commercial  fertilizers, 
the  directions  coming  with  these  fertilizers  should  be  strictly 
followed,  as  too  much  of  the  commercial  fertilizer  will  "fire" 
the  plants. 

Proper  cultivation  is  essential  to  success  in  gardening.  A 
plow,  rake  or  hoe  should  be  run  over  the  surface  ^every  few 
days  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  form  a  dust  mulch  on  the 
surface.  This  mulch  conserves  the  moisture  in  the  ground  for 


166 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


the  use  of  the  plants  by  preventing  too  rapid  evaporation  of 
the  ground  water. 

Most  vegetables  are  subject  to  attacks  from  insects  and 
disease.  The  ravages  from  these  two  sources  may  be  prevented 
by  spraying  with  suitable  materials  from  time  to  time  during 
the  season. 

The  blights  which  affect  such  plants  as  the  potato  may 
be  prevented  by  spraying  with  Bordeau  mixture,  which  consists 
of  3  ounces  of  copper  sulphate  and  3  ounces  of  lump  or  hydrated 
lime  to  2^2  gallons  of  water. 

Sucking  insects  may  be  destroyed  by  using  a  nicotine  sul- 
phate solution  which  consists  of  }/£  ounce  of  nicotine  sulphate 
and  3^2  ounce  of  laundry  soap  to  2  gallons  of  water. 

The  eating  insects  may  be  destroyed  with  a  solution  of  lead 
arsenate,  consisting  of  1  ounce  of  powdered  lead  arsenate  to 
6  quarts  of  water.  This  may  be  applied  with  a  sprayer,  a  sprink- 
ler or  an  old  whisk  broom.  This  solution  should  not  be  used 
on  cabbage  which  is  heading  as  it  is  poisonous. 

The  bushel  crate  is  a  very  convenient  means  of  gathering 
and  delivering  such  bulky  crops  as  potatoes,  onions  and  toma- 
toes. A  heaped  bushel  must  be  used  in  measuring  such  vege- 
tables. A  heaped  bushel  contains  2,747.07  cubic  inches.  To 
hold  a  heaped  bushel,  a  rectangular  crate  should  be  made 


bushel  Crate 


17  Long) '     . 

H  W/dfll/ntde  dimension* 
OeepJ 


Construction:  The  side  slats  are  ^"x  l^"x  18".  They 
are  nailed  together  with  cleats  y2"  x  \y2"  x  12^"  with  spaces 
of  1"  between.  This  leaves  1"  at  the  base  for  nailing  on 
the  bottom.  The  cleats  are  nailed  flush  with  the  ends  of  the 
side  slats.  The  end  slats  are  l/2rr  x  \l/2"  x  14"  and  are  nailed 
to  cleats  J4"x2"xl2^"  with  spaces  of  1"  between  the  slats. 

The  end  cleats  project  1"  be- 
yond the  ends  of  the  end  slats 
so  that  they  will  allow  for  the 
side  slats  and  be  nailed  flush 
with  the  side  cleats.  The  bot- 
tom is  made  of  4  slats  l/>"  x  3"  x 
18",  nailed  with  intervening 
spaces  of  I",  to  two  cleats  %"  x 
l*/2"x!5".  The  bottom  cleats 
are  nailed  to  the  corner  cleats 

and  are  reinforced  at  these  cor- 
ners with  strips  of  tin.  These  strips  of  tin  may  be  cut  from 
any  old  bucket  or  can.  Thin  box  lumber  may  be  used  in  con- 
structing such  crates  and  thus  make  the  expense  much  less 
than  when  new  lumber  is  used. 


Strips  f  X/r 


Fig  9 


167 


CANNING  VEGETABLES 


There  are  three  kinds  of  germs  which  cause  decay  in 
fruits  and  vegetables,  i.  e.,  yeast,  molds  and  bacteria.  These 
germs  must  be  destroyed  in  a  can  of  fruit  or  vegetables  if 
we  wish  to  preserve  it.  Yeast  and  mold  germs  are  easily  de- 
stroyed at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  Bacteria,  then, 
are  mainly  responsible  for  the  spoiling  of  canned  vegetables. 
Certain  kinds  of  bacteria  can  live  and  cause  vegetables  to  spoil 
even  when  air  is  not  present. 

A  bacteria  germ  reproduces  itself  by  dividing  into  two 
parts  or  by  means  of  spores  which  correspond  to  the  seeds 
of  flowering  plants.  Spores  will  retain  their  vitality  for  a  con- 
siderable time  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  and  will 
germinate  after  the  water  has  cooled.  In  order  to  kill  the 
spores  in  a  can  of  vegetables,  it  is  necessary  to  boil  it  for  about 
three  to  five  hours  at  one  time  or  to  boil  it  for  an  hour  upon 
two  or  three  successive  days.  The  boiling  on  the  second  day 
kills  the  germs  which  have  come  from  the  spores  which  were 
not  killed  in  the  first  boiling.  They  are  then  killed  before 
they  have  had  time  to  produce  other  spores.  This  process  of 
killing  the  germs  and  spores  in  vegetables  and  fruits  is  called 
sterilization. 

The  sterilization  of  the  jars  of  vegetables  may  be  accom- 
plished by  placing  the  jars  on  a  frame  in  a  common  wash  boiler 
with  a  tight  cover.  About  3"  or  4"  of  water  should  then  be 
placed  in  the  boiler.  The  steam  from  this  water  will  sterilize 
the  jars  of  vegetables.  The  lids  to  the  jars  must  be  left  slightly 
loose  to  allow  any  steam,  which  forms  in  the  jars,  to  escape. 
Otherwise  the  jars  may  crack  *  due  to  the  excessive  pres- 
sure inside.  After  the  boiling 
is  completed,  the  jars  should 
be  quickly  removed  and  the 
lids  tightened  to  prevent  any  air 
from  entering  because  the  out- 
side air  will  bring  fresh  spores 
with  it.  A  frame  with  wire 
handles  on  it  as  shown  in  Fig. 
10  will  make  it  easy  to  remove 
the  hot  jars  from  the  boiler. 
This  frame  consists  of  thin  slats, 
nailed  to  cleats  which  are  placed  about  6"  from  the  ends. 
It  is  made  the  same  shape  as  the  boiler  and  slightly  smaller  to 
allow  it  to  be  easily  raised  and  lowered.  A  strip  of  galvanized 
iron  or  hardware  mesh  should  be  tacked  around  the  outside  of 


fig.  10 


frame 


fj/afe 


168  SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 

the  frame  to  hold  the  jars  in  position  when  the  frame  is  lifted 
from  the  boiler. 

How  to  can  by  the  cold-pack  method :  After  the  vegetables 
are  cleaned  and  prepared  for  canning,  they  should  be  scalded 
or  blanched  in  steam  or  boiling  water  from  1  to  15  minutes, 
according  to  the  kind  of  vegetable.  This  process  enables  the 
skins  of  such  vegetables  as  tomatoes  and  beets  to  be  removed 
and  also  removes  certain  objectionable  acids.  Blanching  may 
be  very  conveniently  done  by  placing  the  vegetables  in  a  cheese- 
cloth bag  and  lowering  them  in  boiling  water  or  by  placing  them 
in  a  colander  and  putting  them  over  boiling  water  in  a  covered 
vessel.  The  steam  process  is  best  when  the  time  of  blanching 
is  very  long  because  the  volatile  oils  and  other  substances  re- 
main in  the  vegetables  much  better  than  they  do  when  they  are 
blanched  in  boiling  water.  The  following  table  shows  the  times 
for  blanching  and  for  sterilization  of  certain  typical  vegetables: 

Vegetable  Time  for  Blanching    Time  for  Sterilizing 

Tomatoes 1  to  2  min.  18  to     22  min. 

Pumpkin 5  to  10  min.  90  to  120    " 

Sweet  Corn  5  to  10    "  120  to  180    " 

Beans    3  min.  90  to  120    " 

Peas 3  to  5     "  120  to  180    " 

"Cauliflower    3  min.  40  to     60    " 

Beets , 5     "  80  to    90    " 

Sweet  Potatoes 3  to  5  min.  80  to    90    " 

Greens    15  min.  90  to  120    " 

The  same  time  limits  may  be  used  for  other  vegetables  of 
a  similar  nature.  For  example,  squash  requires  the  same  time 
limits  as  pumpkins. 

When  the  vegetables  are  removed  from  the  blanching  pro- 
cess, they  should  be  dipped  into  cold  water  and  immediately 
removed  and  drained.  They  are  then  ready  to  be  packed  into 
jars,  covered  with  boiling  water,  flavored  with  a  teaspoonful 
of  salt  and  sterilized  as  described  on  the  preceding  page. 

Instead  of  canning,  most  vegetables  may  be  blanched  as 
described  above  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat.  For 
this  purpose  a  rectangular  tray  with  screen  wire  on  the  bottom 
may  be  constructed.  This  tray  should  be  set  on  bricks  placed 
in  pans  of  water  to  keep  out  creeping  insects  if  used  for  sun 
drying.  In  artificial  drying  it  may  be  placed  in  the  oven  with 
the  door  slightly  ajar  or  suspended  above  the  top  of  the  stove. 


*  Cauliflower  should  be  soaked  in  brine  for  an  hour  before   blanching 
to  remove  any  insects  that  may  be  hiding:  in  it. 


169 
SEED  CORN 

The  selection,  curing  and  testing  of  seed  corn  presents  an 
interesting  and  profitable  project  for  any  pupil  who  has  access 
to  a  field  containing  a  good  variety  of  corn.  This  work  will 
be  more  interesting  if  the  pupil  carries  on  this  work  in  con- 
nection with  a  corn  raising  project.  There  are  always  farmers 
in  every  community  who  prefer  to  buy  their  seed  corn  rather 
than  take  the  trouble  of  selecting  and  caring  for  it,  providing 
they  are  sure  they  will  get  seed  of  the  proper  quality. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  well  preserved  seed  corn 
will  increase  the  yield  per  acre.  In  one  experiment  four  bushels 
of  ears  were  divided  into  two  equal  parts.  The  part  that  was 
well  preserved  gave  an  increase  of  12%  on  poor  soil  and  27% 
on  good  soil  over  the  yield  from  the  part  that  was  placed  in 
the  barn  in  the  same  way  that  the  corn  was  put  in  a  crib. 

Seed  corn  should  be  selected  before  the  first  hard  freeze. 
Well-ripened  ears  should  be  celected  from  stalks  that  have 
produced  the  most  corn  in  competition  with  other  stalks.  Large 
ears  from  single  stalks  with  an  unusual  amount  of  space  should 
not  be  selected.  After  gathering,  the  ears  should  be  imme- 
diately placed  in  position  for  drying.  This  may  be  done  by 
tying  heavy  twine  around  several  ears  and  hanging  them  from 
some  support  on  the  ceiling.  The  rack  shown  in  Fig.  11 
will  also  furnish  an  excellent  place  to  dry  the  corn.  This  rack 
holds  400  ears  or  about  4  bushels  of  seed  corn.  Such  a  rack 
also  has  an  added  advantage  of  being  convenient  when  the  ears 
are  being  tested.  It  may  be  divided  into  4  sections,  each  con- 
taining 100  ears,  the  number  above  each  ear  corresponding  to  a 
number  of  a  square  in  the  seed  testing  box.  This  frame  should 
be  placed  in  a  shed  or  room  in  which  a  good  circulation  of  air 
is  maintained.  The  corn  must  be  thoroughly  dried  before  it 
freezes  or  the  germ  will  be  frozen  and  injured. 

The  main  standards  of  the  frame  are  >  made  of  2x2's,  7' 9" 
long.  The  slats  for  holding  the  ears  are  J/&"  square  and  5' 6" 
long.  These  slats  are  spaced  3"  apart.  Wires  are  stapled  to 
the  frame  at  intervals  of  3",  thus  dividing  the  frame  into  400 
equal  compartments. 

The  base  boards  may  be  made  any  convenient  length,  the 
longer  boards  making  the  frame  less  apt  to  be  pushed  over. 
If  several  of  these  frames  are  made,  they  may  be  connected 
across  the  top  and  thus  make  a  very  stable  set  of  frames.  The 
upright  posts  should  be  spaced  about  3"  apart.  This  will 
allow  ears  8"  long  to  be  supported  on  the  slats  which  are 
7"  apart  (inside  measurements).  It  will  not  be  necessary 
to  wire  the  back  of  the  frame  because  the  front  wires  will 


170 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


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SEED  CORN 


171 


separate  the  ears.  The  open  structure  of  this  frame  allows  air 
currents  to  freely  circulate  about  the  ears  and  is  thus  espe- 
cially favorable  for  equal  drying  of  all  parts  of  the  ears. 

In  the  spring  the  ears  should  be  tested  before  planting. 
This  testing  may  be  carried  on  in  two  ways.  The  seeds  may 
be  .planted  in  a  box  of  sand  and  kept  in  a  warm  place.  This 
method  has  the  advantage  of  being  more  nearly  like  natural 
conditions.  The  second  method  is  to  germinate  the  seeds  on 
a  cloth  divided  into  squares  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
ears  tested,  above  and  below  which  is  kept  damp  sawdust. 
The  seed  testing  tray  shown  in  Fig.  12  may  be  used  for 
either  method.  This  tray  may  be  divided  into  100  two-inch 
squares. 

In  securing  the  ten  kernels  which  should  be  selected  from 
each  ear,  one  should  begin  about  1"  from  the  base  and  go 
around  the  ear  in  a  spiral  fashion  to  about  1"  from  the 
tip  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  Only  the  ears  from  which  all  the 
seeds  sprouted  should  be  kept.  The  kernels  about  an  inch  from 
the  base  and  an  inch  from  the  tip  of  the  ear  should  be  dis- 
carded in  shelling  for  seed.  In  testing  seed  corn,  one  should 
be  sure  the  conditions  under  which  the  seed  were  tested  were 
favorable  for  germination  or  ears  may  be  thrown  away  which 
would  germinate  under  favorable  conditions.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  65°  F.  during 
the  test.  Any  pupil,  working  up  a  reputation  for  first  class 
seed  corn  will  soon  have  all  the  business  that  he  can  handle. 

In  years  which  are  patricularly  unfavorable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  seed  corn,  ears  which  have  a  lower  test  may  be  sorted 
into  piles  showing  different  per  cents  of  germination  and  the 
piles  testing  80%  or  more  used  in  case  of  a  seed  corn  shortage. 
Only  in  extreme  cases  should  corn  testing  less  than  80%  be 
used. 


Fig.  12    Seed  Corn  Tester 


Fig.  13 

Manner  of  Removing  Kernels  forltsting 


Atrne/3   rtmoved 


172  SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 

RAISING  POULTRY 

Everywhere,  except  in  the  thickly  settled  parts  of  a  city, 
one  can  find  space  enough  to  carry  on  a  poultry  project  because 
a  minimum  of  only  35  square  feet  of  yard  space  is  required  for 
each  fowl.  More  than  this  minimum  amount  is  desirable,  how- 
ever. 

A  poultry  project  may  consist  of  two  lines  of  work:  (1) 
keeping  hens  for  egg  production  and  (2)  raising  poultry  for 
market.  The  breed  of  poultry  to  be  selected  depends  upon  the 
aim  of  the  project. 

The  three  main  breeds  of  chickens  are:  (1)  the  egg  breeds, 
such  as  the  Leghorns  and  the  Minorcas;  (2)  the  meat  breeds, 
among  which  are  the  Brahmas,  the  Cochins  and  the  Langshans ; 
and  (3)  the  general  purpose  breeds,  the  most  common  of  which 
are  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  the  Wyandottes  and  the  Rhode  Island 
Reds. 

KEEPING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

The  first  essential  in  keeping  hens  for  egg  production  is  a 
good  house.  The  building  of  a  chicken  house  is  an  excellent 
constructive  project  for  any  boy  or  for  a  group  project  for  a 
manual  training  class.  The  chicken  house  should  be  protected 
by  other  buildings  or  placed  on  a  slope  facing  the  south.  At 
least  5  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allowed  for  each 
fowl  in  order  to  provide  sufficient  scratching  space. 

The  standard  lengths  of  lumber  must  be  considered  in 
planning  a  house  so  that  there  will  be  the  least  possible  waste 
in  sawing  the  boards.  Lumber  usually  comes  in  10',  12',  14'  and 
16'  lengths.  A  chicken  house  12'  x  10'  will  supply  the  right 
amount  of  floor  space  for  24  hens  and  also  leave  very  little 
waste  in  cutting  the  boards. 

The  floor  of  a  chicken  house  should  be  made  of  boards  or 
concrete  because  dirt  floors  can  not  be  kept  in  a  sanitary  con- 
dition without  a  great  deal  of  work.  A  good  concrete  floor  is 
very  durable  and  can  be  easily  cleaned.  Refer  to  the  section 
on  concrete  to  find  how  to  mix  concrete  for  such  a  floor. 

The  house  should  be  as  low  as  can  be  conveniently  used 
because  a  low  house  is  more  easily  warmed  than  a  high  one. 
The  chicken  house  shown  in  Fig.  14  is  12'  long  and  lO'  wide. 
It  is  &y2'  high  at  the  front  and  4V2'  high  at  the  rear.  This  gives 
a  slope  for  the  roof  of  4'  in  12'  or  a  pitch  of  y$.  To  wear  well 
a  roof  should  not  have  a  pitch  less  than  y$  because  the  water 
would  not  run  off  well  and  it  would  decay  more  quickly. 

The  advantages  of  a  single  sloped  roof  are:    (1)  it  is  easiest 


RAISING  POULTRY 


173 


Fig.  14 


Poultry  House 


6' 'Projection 


Front  of  frame        Fi  g.  1 5 


to  build  and  (2)  it  allows  a  high  window  in  the  front  so  that  the 
sunlight  may  reach  the  rear  edge  of  the  floor. 

Construction  of  the  frame:  The  frame  of  a  house  of  this 
size  should  be  constructed  of  2  x  4's.  The  front  is  put  together 
as  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The  five  studding  should  be  sawed  8' 2" 
long.  The  sill  at  the  bottom  and  the  plate  at  the  top  are  1(X 
long.  The  easiest  construction  is  to  spike  the  sill  and  plate  to 
the  ends  of  the  studding  before  the  front  of  the  frame  is  raised 
into  place.  The  studding  should  be  spaced  according  to  the 
locations  of  the  door  and  window.  Cross  pieces  should  be  cut 
to  fit  the  spaces  as  indicated  and  spiked  to  the  studding. 

The  lower  corners  may  be  fastened  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
The  detail  of  the  front  corner,  Fig.  16,  shows  a  method  of 
cutting  the  corner  post  and  the  two  sills  to  make  a  strong  lap 
joint.  Instead  of  this  construction  the  bottom  may  be  spiked 
to  the  corner  post  and  the  side  sill  toe-nailed  to  the  corner  post. 
A  brace  across  the  corner  on  the  inside  may  be  used  in  either 
construction  to  strengthen  the  frame. 

The  back  part  of  the  frame  consists  of  a  rectangular  frame 
10'  long  and  4^'  high.  This  requires  the  studding  to  be  4'  2" 
long. 

The  side  should  be  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  17.  The 
side  sills  are  set  edgewise  to  correspond  to  the  rafters.  The 
corners  should  be  squared  and  braced  before  an  attempt  is  made 
to  cut  the  rafters. 

How  long  will  the  .rafters  be?  The  length  may  be  found 
by  using  a  framing  square.  By  placing  one  end  of  the  rule  on 
the  4"  mark  and  swinging  the  rule  until  it  touches  the  12" 
mark  on  the  other  arm,  the  number  of  inches  on  the  rule  be- 
tween these  points  will  represent  the  number  of  feet  in  the 
rafter  from  plate  to  plate  for  the  slope  of  4'  in  12'. 

"The  rafters  should  be  cut  long  enough  to  allow  for  a  pro- 
jection of  6"  at  the  front  and  rear.  The  detail  of  the  fastening 
of  the  rafter  to  the  plate  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  The  rafters  may 


174 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Detail  of  Corner 


Fig.16 


p.^  j-»  >3«e  F/(j./8Jor  detail 

Side  cf  Frame 


be  held  in  position  (edgewise)  at  one  end  of  the  plate  and 
marked  for  the  cuts  to  be  made  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Six  rafters,  spaced  approximately  22"  apart  will  be  sufficient  to 
hold  the  roof  of  this  house. 

The  roof:  The  type  of  covering  used  for  the  roof  will 
determine  the  method  of  putting  on  the  sheathing  (that  layer 
of  boards  between  the  rafters  and  the  covering).  If  the  roof 
is  to  be  shingled,  the  sheathing  may  be  spaced  about  2"  apart 
because  a  solid  base  is  not  necessary.  On  the  other  hand 
a  solid  base  is  preferable  if  prepared  composition  roofing  is  used. 

Shingles  come  in  bunches  of  250  each.  When  they  are  laid 
with  4*^>"  exposed  to  the  weather,  a  thousand  shingles  will 
cover  about  125  square  feet.  Determining  the  number  of  shingles 
needed  for  covering  any  house  makes  a  very  practical  problem. 

Shingling:  The  lower  course  of  shingles  may  be  laid  straight 
by  stretching  a  chalk  line  across  the  rear  about  1"  from  the 
lower  edge  of  the  sheathing.  This  lower  course  should  be  laid 
double.  The  main  point  in  laying  shingles  is  to  have  no  joint 
between  the  shingles  in  the  upper  course  nearer  than  34"  to 
a  joint  in  the  lower  course.  After  this  double  course  of  shingles 
has  been  laid,  a  point  should  be  set  off  4^"  from  the  bottom 
on  each  side,  a  chalk  line,  which  has  been  well  chalked,  stretched 
taut,  and  then  snapped.  Another  line  should  then  be  chalked 
4*^"  above  this  line.  By  this  means  two  courses  of  shingles 
can  be  laid  at  once. 

Two  3d  nails  should  be  put  in  each  shingle,  placing  them  at 
least  10"  from  the  base  of  the  shingle.  This  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  nails  from  being  exposed  by  a  crack,  in  which  case 
they  will  rust  out  and  cause  a  leak  in  the  roof.  About  4  pounds 
of  3d  nails  will  be  needed  to  shingle  this  roof. 

By  using  14'  boards  for  the  sheathing,  the  pieces  sawed  off 
can  be  used  for  the  droppings  board  which  will  be  described 


RAISING  POULTRY 


175 


Detail  cfKafkr  on  Plate 


Fig.  IS 


Manner  cf  Laying  Sh/'ng/es 


Fig.  19 


later.  This  will  cause  less  waste  and  be  much  quicker  than  try- 
ing to  use  the  pieces  in  sheathing  the  roof. 

If  prepared  roofing,  such  as  tarred  paper,  is  used,  the  sheath- 
ing is  laid  solid.  Prepared  roofing  is  computed  by  the  square. 
The  term  square  as  used  in  this  connection  means  100  square 
feet.  How  many  squares  of  roofing  are  needed  to  cover  the 
chicken  house? 

Siding:  The  siding  may  be  put  on  in  several  ways.  Since 
the  house  must  be  built  as  warm  as  possible,  cracks  must  be 
avoided.  This  may  be  done  in  several  ways:  (1)  by  using  com- 
mon boards  and  covering  the  cracks  with  battens ;  (2)  by  using 
tongue  and  grooved  lumber;  or  (3)  by  using  cheap  common 
boards  and  covering  the  sides  as  well  as  the  roof  with  tarred 
paper.  A  good  problem  in  this  connection  is  to  find  the  rela- 
tive costs  of  the  three  methods.  • 

In  sawing  the  boards  for  the  sides,  the  bevel  should  be  set 
at  the  angle  which  the  roof  makes  with  the  corner  post  and 
the  boards  marked  off  at  the  proper  lengths  with  this  bevel. 
The  piece  which  is  sawed  from  a  14'  board  for  the  long  board  at 
the  front  of  the  side  may  be  used  in  cutting  the  short  board  at  the 
rear.  The  piece  from  the  second  board  at  the  side  may  be  used 
for  the  second  board  at  the  rear,  etc. 

The  window:  The  window  area  in  a  poultry  house  should 
not  be  too  large  because  too  much  glass  makes  a  house  too  cold 
at  night  in  extremely  cold  weather.  One  square  foot  of  glass 
should  be  provided  for  every  16  to  18  square  feet  of  floor  area. 
Eight  glass  10"  x  14"  set  in  a  frame  24"  x  5'  2"  will  provide  the 
right  amount  of  window  area  for  this  house.  This  window 
should  be  swung  from  the  top  so  that  it  may  be  used  to  provide 
extra  ventilation  in  moderate  weather  by  swinging  it  out  at  the 
bcttom  and  bracing  it  with  a  prop. 

Instead  of  making  a  window,  an  old  frame  of  a  suitable  size 
may  often  be  purchased  at  a  small  expense  from  some  one  in  the 
neighborhood.  In  that  case  it  is  a  good  plan  to  buy  the  window 


176 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Ventilator 


Fig  20 


/Vests  suspended 
under  droppings 
p/atform 


frame  before  putting  up  the  frame  of  the  poultry  house  so  that 
the  studding  can  be  spaced  to  fit  the  size  of  the  window  frame. 

The  door  should  be  made  of  the  same  material  as  the  siding. 
The  illustration  on  page  91  shows  how  to  brace  a  door  properly. 
The  door  should  be  swung  as  shown  in  Fig.  14  so  that  it  may 
be  opened  and  fastened  back  in  the  daytime.  An  inner  frame 
door,  something  like  a  screen  door,  covered  with  heavy  muslin 
may  be  used  in  cold  weather  to  furnish  additional  light  and 
ventilation. 

Poultry  need  fresh  air  as  well  as  other  animals.  A  ventila- 
tor 24"  x  6"  should  be  provided  above  the  window.  Slats  sloping 
downward  as  in  Fig.  20  may  be  nailed  in  this  ventilator  to  keep 
out  rain.  It  should  always  be  left  open,  even  in  the  cold  weather. 
In  extremely  cold  weather  a  muslin  or  burlap  cloth  should  be 
tacked  over  the  inside  of  the 'ventilator  to  allow  ventilation  to 
go  on  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  draughts  of  cold  air. 

By  providing  the  exit,  10"  xl2",  with  a  door  covered  with 
wire  netting  and  by  an  extra  cloth  in  cold  weather,  it  may  also 
be  used  for  ventilating  purposes. 

A  droppings  platform  should  be  provided  under  the  roost 
to  keep  the  floor  in  a  more  sanitary  condition.  This  platform 
should  be  about  three  feet  wide,  made  movable  and  suspended 
about  2'  10"  from  the  floor.  As  stated  on  page  175,  the  scraps 
from  the  14'  sheathing  may  be  used  in  constructing  this  plat- 
form. The  roosts  may  be  made  of  two  2x2's  nine  feet  long, 
placed  15"  apart.  They  may  be  mounted  on  boards  or  posts  so 
that  they  are  at  least  6"  from  the  droppings  platform.  These 
roosts  should  be  on  the  same  level  for  otherwise  the  hens  will 
overcrowd  the  higher  roost  because  of  the  tendency  of  chickens 
to  roost  as  high  as  possible.  v  - 

The  rear  roost  should  be  at  least  10"  from  the  rear 
wall.  The  top  edges  of  the  2x2's  used  for  the  perches  should 
be  slightly  rounded  to  make  them  more  comfortable.  In  very 


RAISING  POULTRY 


177 


Front  of  Nest  Case 


22 


&ackq[Netf  Case 


door 


cold  weather  a  burlap  or  heavy  muslin  curtain  may  be  lowered 
in  front  of  the  droppings  platform  to  make  it  warmer  at  night 
and  thus  prevent  the  combs  of  the  hens  from  freezing.  Wire 
netting  may  also  be  tacked  to  the  lower  edges  of  the  rafters 
and  the  4"  space  above  it  may  be  filled  with  straw.  The 
same  thing  may  be  done  on  the  sides  of  the  house  if  it  is  not 
lined  with  paper.  The  straw  will  not  only  make  the  house 
warmer  but  also  absorb  any  surplus  moisture. 

The  nests  should  be  in  a  dark  place  so  that  the  hens  will 
not  eat  the  eggs.  A  good  place  to  put  them  is  beneath  the  drop- 
pings board  with  the  openings  toward  the  wall.  This  method  of 
suspension  also  leaves  the  floor  space  clear.  Fig.  22  shows 
a  convenient  row  of  5  nests  for  suspension  under  the  droppings 
board.  Partitions  6"  high  should  be  placed  about  12"  apart 
to  divide  the  box  into  individual  nests.  A  strip  5"  high  will 
be  sufficient  for  the  front  of  the  nests.  The  board  at  the  back 
of  the  nests  should  be  hinged  so  that  the  eggs  may  be  taken 
from  the  nests  without  going  under  the  droppings  board.  The 
top  of  this  board  may  be  fastened  with  wooden  buttons  or  small 
hooks. 

FEEDING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

A  balance^  ration  is  necessary  for  high  egg  production. 
The  principal  kinds  of  feed  are:  (1)  scratch  feed,  consisting 
of  cracked  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  other  small  seeds;  (2)  a  dry 
or  wet  mash,  containing  beef  scrap,  ground  alfalfa  or  some  other 
nitrogenous  materials;  (3)  oyster  shell;  (4)  grit;  (5)  charcoal 
and  (6)  green  feed.  Reference  should  be  made  to  a  good  agri- 
culture text  or  government  bulletin  to  find  the  purpose  and 
proper  proportions  of  these  various  kinds  of  feed. 

Suitable  feed  boxes  and  troughs  are  needed  for  these  feeds. 
Scratch  feed  is  thrown  over  the  straw  litter  which  should  be 
kept  on  the  floor  in  order  to  give  the  hens  plenty  of  exercise 
as  they  scratch  for  this  feed. 


178 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Fig.  2 3      Grit  box 


tolijornia  Dry  Mash  Hopper   Fig.  24 


Most  of  the  feed  boxes  should  be  nailed  to  the  wall  at  such 
a  height  that  the  hens  can  conveniently  reach  them  but  still 
high  enough  to  prevent  them  from  being  scratched  full  of  straw. 
The  grit  box,  Fig.  23,  should  be  divided  into  three  com- 
partments, one  containing  grit,  one  oyster  shell  and  the  other 
charcoal.  These  three  elements  are  very  essential,  the  oyster 
shell  to  furnish  mineral  matter  for  the  egg  shell;  grit  to  enable 
the  gizzard  to  grind  the  food  more  easily  and  charcoal  to  absorb 
any  objectionable  gases  arising  from  digestion. 

A  dry  mash  is  usually  kept  constantly  before  the  hens.  This 
mash  contains  beef  scrap  or  other  nitrogenous  material  needed 
for  making  the  whites  of  the  eggs  and  thus  balance  the  scratch 
feed,  which  is  richer  in  the  elements  used  in  making  the  yolks 
of  the  eggs.  The  California  dry  mash  hopper,  Fig.  24,  is 
an  excellent  hopper  for  feeding  a  dry  mash. 

A  more  simple  trough  for  feeding  table  scraps  or  a  wet  mash 
is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  If  a  thin  narrow  strip  is  tacked  on  the 
top  of  the  inside  of  each  side,  it  will  help  to  prevent  the  hens 
from  scraping  the  food  with  their  beaks  over  the  sides  of  the 
trough  into  the  litter.  The  small  slats  nailed  from  the  top  strip 
to  the  sides  are  to  keep  the  hens  from  getting  into  the  trough 
with  their  feet.  These  slats  may  be  made  out  of  laths. 

The  water  pan  should  be  placed  on  a  platform,  made  of 
slats  about  15"  or  18"  above  the  floor.  This  platform  should 
be  large  enough  to  allow  the  hens  to  stand  on  it  while  drinking. 
A  slat  cover  should  be  made  for  this  pan  so  that  the  hens  can 
not  step  in  the  water  and  render  it  unsanitary  for  drinking 
purposes.  Dirty  water  often  causes  diseases  to  be  spread  from 
one  infected  fowl  through  an  entire  flock. 

One  of  the  most  important  elements  in  winter  feeding  is 
green  food.  This  may  be  provided  by  storing  cabbage  and 
other  green  vegetables  for  winter  feeding.  One  of  the  best 
winter  feeds  is  sprouted  oats.  Several  trays  of  convenient 


RAISING  POULTRY 


179 


Fig.  25      Feed  Trougfi 


Oats  Sprout/ngTray    Fig. 26 


dimensions  should  be  provided  for  sprouting  the  oats,  the  num- 
ber depending  upon  the  size  of  the  flock.  The  oats  should  first 
be  soaked  24  hours  and  then  spread  out  in  a  tray  in  a  layer 
about  24"  deep.  They  should  be  sprinkled  about  twice  a 
day  to  keep  them  moist.  If  kept  in  a  warm  place  they  should 
be  ready  for  use  in  from  10  days  to  two  weeks.  Other  trays 
should  be  started  at  regular  intervals  so  that  one  will  be  ready 
as  soon  as  another  is  used.  An  open  rack  to  hold  these  trays 
may  easily  be  devised  and  made  out 'of  scrap  lumber  or  crating. 
If  one  is  equipped  with  all  the  conveniences  for  properly 
caring  for  poultry,  the  management  of  a  flock  of  hens  becomes 
much  more  pleasurable  and  if  scientific  methods  of  feeding  are 
used,  it  results  in  greater  profits  for  the  manager.  A  flock  of 
12  Leghorn  hens,  when  fed  in  a  scientific  manner,  yielded  a 
profit  of  over  $40  in  a  year. 

RAISING  POULTRY  FOR  MARKET 

Many  appliances  are  desirable  for  raising  chickens  for  mar- 
ket on  a  large  scale  which  are  too  expensive  for  a  small  project. 
Raising  chickens  by  the  natural  method  is  the  safest  for  the 
beginner  and  also  the  more  economical. 

April  and  May  are  the  best  months  for  hatching,  because 
the  chicks  can  then  be  placed  in  coops  out  of  doors.  Green 
food  and  insects  are  plentiful  and  the  expense  of  raising  them 
is  thus  lowered. 

It  is  best  to  have  a  single  nest  for  a  sitting  hen.  The  hen 
should  be  moved  after  dark  to  this  new  nest  for  she  will  prob- 
ably be  less  disturbed  at  that  time.  A  square  covered  box 
15"  x  15"  x  15"  can  easily  be  made  from  a  packing  box.  Bar- 
rels, placed  on  their  sides,  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  whole  grain  such  as  corn,  wheat  and 
oats  should  be  supplied  the  sitting  hen.  Too  much  meat  food 
would  tend  to  make  her  quit  sitting  and  begin  laying. 


180 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Candter 


V  Shaped  Coop 


Fig.  26 


The  number  of  eggs  that  should  be  supplied  to  a  sitting 
hen  varies  from  11  to  15,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  hen 
and  the  state  of  the  weather  when  she  begins  sitting. 

After  the  hen  has  been  sitting  6  or  7  days,  the  eggs  should 
be  candled.  A  candler  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  27 
will  be  found  convenient.  Either  a- lamp,  a  lantern  or  an  elec- 
tric light  may  be  used  to  supply  the  inside  light.  If  a  lamp  or 
lantern  is  used  an  opening  should  be  made  in  the  top  'above  the 
chimney.  A  few  air  holes  should  also  be  bored  in  the  bottom. 
The  opening  for  testing  the  eggs  should  be  cut  at  the  level  of 
the  light.  A  piece  of  black  felt,  placed  around  the  opening  will 
lessen  the  danger  of  cracking  the  shell  and  will  add  much  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  tester.  The  eggs  that  are  not  fertile  will 
appear  clear  while  the  fertile  eggs  will  have  a  spider-like  mass 
in  them.  Should  a  large  number  of  eggs  not  be  fertile  under 
two  hens  set  at  the  same  time,  the  fertile  eggs  may  all  be  placed 
under  one  hen  and  a  new  supply  placed  under  the  other  hen. 

After  the  chicks  are  hatched  they  should  be  placed  in  a 
warm  box  or  basket  until  all  the  chicks  are  out  and  are  strong 
enough  to  be  placed  with  the  hen  in  an  individual  coop.  The 
easiest  type  of  coop  to  construct  is  made  by  nailing  boards  to- 
gether in  a  V  shape.  Two  boards  12"  wide  and  30"  long 
for  each  side  will  make  a  fair  sized  coop.  The  ends  should 
be  sawed  slightly  beveled  so  that  the  top  edges  will  fit  together 
when  the  bottom  is  spread  to  3'.  The  crack  between  the 
side  boards  should  be  covered  with  a  thin  board  or  a  lath  to 
make  it  water  proof.  The  back  should  be  boarded  up  solid. 
The  front  end  should  be  composed  partlv  of  slats  to  let  in  the 
light  and  give  a  place  for  the  chicks  to  leave  the  coop  without 
the  hen  being  able  to  leave.  These  slats  should  be  about  3" 
apart.  A  covered  runway  about  3'  wide  and  8'  long  will  offer 
plenty  of  space  for  the  chicks  when  they  are  small  and  be  a 


RAISING  POULTRY 


181 


Box  Coop 


Fig.  29 


Feect/ng  Crate 


..    ^'Poultry  netfinq 


Fig.  30 


protection  against  crows  and  hawks.  This  runway  should  be 
made  on  a  movable  frame  so  that  it  can  occasionally  be  moved 
to  a  new  grass  plot. 

A  box  typed  coop  gives  a  hen  a  better  chance  to  move 
about.  This  coop  may  be  made  any  convenient  size.  For  the 
coop  as  shown  in  Fig.  29,  an  8"  board  sawed  diagonally 
will  furnish  the  two  slanting  boards  for  the  sides.  The  top 
boards  should  project  about  3"  at  the  front  and  back.  A 
loose  floor  should  be  constructed  for  either  type  'of  coop  so 
that  the  coops  may  be  lifted  off  and  the  floor  easily  cleaned. 
After  the  chicks  are  large  enough,  the  hen  should  be  released 
from  the  coop  and  allowed  to  take  the  chicks  over  a  wide  range. 

When  the  chicks  are  large  enough  for  market,  they  should 
be  confined  in  a  crate  and  fattened  for  about  two  weeks.  By 
confining  the  birds  in  a  crate,  they  will  not  waste  any  energy 
in  useless  exercise.  The  chicks  are  fed  in  a  trough  placed  in 
front  of  the  crate,  (see  Fig.  30).  The  slats  on  the  front  should 
be  spaced  2"  apart  so  that  they  will  have  plenty  of  room  to 
reach  through  for  food.  A  crate  of  this  size  is  large  enough 
to  fatten  12  chicks.  The  chicks  should  be  weighed  before 
placing  in  the  crate  and  when  sold,  to  determine  the  amount 
of  profit  resulting  from  this  method  of  feeding.  It  would  make 
an  interesting  experiment  to  compare  the  gain  by  this  method 
with  that  of  another  lot  that  was  fattened  while  running  over 
a  large  lot  but  fed  exactly  the  same  amount  and  kind  of  feed. 

In  conducting  either  a  poultry  project  for  egg  production 
or  raising  poultry  for  market,  an  accurate  account  of  receipts 
and  expenditures  should  be  kept  so  that  the  profit  of  the  ex- 
periment may  be  computed.  Inventories  should  be  taken  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  and  be  included  in  the 
account. 


182 


RAISING  HOGS 


Raising  hogs  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  industries  in  the 
great  corn  producing  states.  When  corn  is  plentiful,  the  farmer 
can  feed  his  corn  to  hogs  and  market  it  in  the  form  of  meat 
instead  of  grain.  To  make  the  greatest  profits,  however,  proper 
methods  of  raising,  fattening  and  selling  must  be  followed. 

The  first  important  consideration  in  beginning  a  hog  raising 
project  is  to  select  the  breed.  There  are  two  general  breeds  of 
hogs:  (1)  the  bacon  type,  represented  by  the  Large  Yorkshire 
and  the  Tamworth  and  (2)  the  lard  type  including  the  Berk- 
shires,  the.  Poland-Chinas,  the  Duroc-Jerseys  and  the  Chester 
Whites.  Of  these  breeds,  the  Tamworth  is  considered  the  ideal 
bacon  type  and  the  Poland-China  is  the  deal  of  the  lard  pro- 
ducing type.  The  Poland-China  is  not  as  prolific,  however,  as 
some  of  the  other  representatives  of  the  lard  type  such  as  the 
Duroc-Jerseys.  One  should  select  sows  from  one  of  the  best 
breeds  in  his  neighborhood  and  endeavor  to  get  pure  bred  stock. 
If  the  herd  is  composed  of  pure  bred  stock,  one  may  often  sell 
the  young  sows  for  more  than  would  be  secured  if  they  were 
kept  and  fattened. 

Pigs  which  are  ready  for  market  in  October  usually  bring 
higher  prices  than  those  which  are  marketed  a  month  or  two 
months  later.  It  is  therefore  to  the  hog  raiser's  interest  to  get 
his  pigs  ready  for  the  early  prices.  In  order  to  have  the  pigs 
ready  for  this  fall  demand,  the  sows  must  begin  farrowing  about 
March  1.  The  farmer  also  has  less  work  at  that  time  and  can 
take  better  care  of  these  early  pigs  than  those  coming  two 
months  later.  The  early  pigs  are  also  large  enough  to  begin 
eating  grass  when  it  is  ready  in  the  spring.  A  large  growth 
is  thus  obtained  from  pasture,  which  has  been  demonstrated 
to  be  the  most  economical  feed  in  raising  hogs. 

Proper  housing  facilities  must  be  provided  for  early  pigs 
or  large  losses  will  occur.  The  little  pig  has  very  little  covering 


Movable  HOQ  House 


HOQ  House  Frame 


Frorit 


Fig.32 


RAISING  HOGS 


183 


and  for  this  reason  must  be  kept  in  a  warm  place.  The  individual 
hog  cot  is  probably  the  best  type  of  hog  house  for  the  small 
producer.  The  advantages  of  the  portable  individual  cot  are : 
(1)  it  is  simple  to  build  and  inexpensive;  (2)  it  is  more  sanitary 
for  it  may  easily  be  moved  from  one  location  to  another,  thus 
avoiding  muddy  feeding  lots ;  (3)  it  is  more  easily  ventilated 
than  a  large  hog  house ;  (4)  it  lessens  the  dangers  of  contagious 
diseases ;  and  (5)  a  renter  may  build  and  move  such  houses  with 
him  to  another  farm.  The  disadvantages  of  the  individual  cot 
are  that  a  group  of  them  are  not  so  easily  heated  by  artificial 
means  as  one  large  house  and  it  is  more  trouble  to  feed  a  large 
herd  in  individual  cots  than  in  a  large  hog  house. 

The  individual  hog  house  shown  in  Fig.  31  is  designed  to 
be  warm  and  also  furnish  an  abundance  of  light  and  ventilation. 
The  foundation  for  the  floor  of  this  house  may  be  made  by 
spiking  three'  2  x  6's,  6'  10"  long,  flatwise  to  five  2  x4's,  6'  8" 
long.  The  2  x  4's  should  be  spaced  18"  apart.  The  three  2  x  6's 
are  designed  to  serve  as  runners  when  the  hog  house  is  moved. 
For  this  purpose  the  front  ends  should  be  rounded  like  sled 
runners  and  wires  attached  to  them  to  serve  as  a  means  of 
attaching  doubletrees  when  moving.  The  two  end  runners 
should  be  allowed  to  project  2"  beyond  the  ends  of  the  joists. 

The  four  corner  posts  should  then  be  spiked  to  the  ends 
of  the  front  and  rear  joists.  These  posts  may  be  further 
strengthened  by  spiking  the  2"  projections  of  the  runners 
to  the  bottoms  of  the  posts.  A  2  x  4,  fitting  between  the  bases 
of  the  corner  posts  should  then  be  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the 
joists.  The  remainder  of  the  frame  may  easily  be  constructed 
by  referring  to  the  drawings  of  the  front,  back  and  sides  of  the 
frame. 

Either  shiplap  or  common  12"  barn  siding,  battened  at 
the  cracks  is  suitable  for  the  siding.  The  inside  of  the  house 
should  be  lined  with  shiplap  or  some  other  cheap  material  ii 

//ousc      Frame  I 


Fig.  35 

Sac* 


Fig.34 


Side 


184 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


the  house  is  to  be  used  in  cold  weather.  A  good  quality  of 
flooring  should  be  used  to  make  the  floor  both  warm  and  dur- 
able. Straw  or  dirt  may  be  banked  around  the  outside  of  the 
house  temporarily  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  under  the 
floor  in  extremely  cold  weather.  Plenty  of  straw  should  also  be 
provided  for  bedding. 

A  2x4  support  for  the  roof  should  be  nailed  between  the 
middle  points  of  the  two  outside  rafters.  Either  common  barn 
siding  with  the  cracks  tightly  covered  with  battening  and 
painted,  or  shiplap  covered  with  tarred  paper,  will  furnish  a 
moderate  priced  and  fairly  satisfactory  roof  for  such  a  house. 

Chicken  wire  may  be  nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the  rafters 
of  the  hog  house  and  the  4"  space  above  it  and  the  roof  filled 
in  with  straw.  This  will  make  the  house  much  warmer,  which 
is  a  very  desirable  feature  for  early  farrowing. 

If  8"  boards  are  attached  to  the  walls  about  8"  above  the 
floor,  they  will  provide  a  protection  for  the  little  pigs  by  pre- 
venting the  mother  from  crushing  them  against  the  wall  when 
she  lies  down.  The  illustration  in  Fig.  36  shows  a  method  of 
attaching  such  a  fender  to  the  wall.  The  same  purpose  is  served 
by  a  2x4  scantling  fastened  so  that  the  outer  edge  is  8"  from 
both  the  wall  and  the  floor. 

Two  windows  each  about  24"x2'4"  will  provide  plenty 
of  light  and  sunshine  for  a  house  of  this  size.  Little  pigs 
must  have  plenty  of  sunshine.  The  angle  of  the  sun's  rays 
with  the  earth  depends  upon  the  time  of  the  year  and  also  upon 
the  location  of  a  place.  The  tops  of  the  windows  should  be 
placed  at  such  a  height  that  the  noon  sun  will  reach  the  rear 
edge  of  the  house.  The  following  table  shows  the  heights  nec- 
essary for  the  sun  to  strike  the  rear  part  of  this  house  at  various 
altitudes  on  March  1  and  April  1 : 


Pig  Tender 


Fig.  36 


Ventilator  for  Window 


fastening  button 


Fig.  37 


RAISING  HOGS 


185 


Heights  of  windows  for  various  latitudes  for  a  hog  house 
6'  in  depth. 

Location  March  1 

38°  N.  Latitude  5'  10" 

40°    "          "  5'     5" 
42°    "           "  Sr     1" 

"  4'     9" 


44  c 
46' 


4'     5' 


April  1 
9'  0" 
8'  5" 
7'  9" 
7'  3" 
6'  9" 


From  the  preceding  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  windows 
will  need  to  be  located  near  the  top  of  the  front  of  the  hog 
house.  The  above  table  will  be  valuable  in  locating  the  win- 
dows accurately  for  a  certain  locality  when  a  definite  time  for 
farrowing  has  been  fixed. 

By  swinging  the  windows  on  hinges  at  the  top,  suitable  pro- 
vision can  be  made  for  ventilation.  An  excellent  device  may  be 
used  on  the  windows  in  cold  weather.  A  frame  the  same  size 
as  the  window  may  be  covered  with  cloth  and  fastened  to  the 
window  sash  as  shown  in  Fig.  37.  The  braces  at  AA'  may 
be  made  of  either  wood  or  iron.  A  wooden  button  on  the  out- 
side will  hold  the  window  shut  and  the  cloth  frame  up  out  of 
the  way.  A  fastening  peg  on  the  inside  will  hold  the  window 
sash  open  and  the  cloth  frame  in  place  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. This  provides  for  ventilation  and  prevents  any  undue 
draft  on  the  pigs.  If  the  window  is  low  enough  for  the  hogs 
to  reach  it,  the  cloth  frame  must  be  protected  by  a  wire  screen 
on  the  inside. 

The  door  is  about  24"  wide  and  34"  high.  It  is  made 
by  sawing  the  necessary  number  of  boards  in  the  front  to  give 
the  required  width.  A  brace  must  be  nailed ,  to  the  boards  on 
the  inside  above  the  door  and  two  cross  cleats  nailed  to  the 
boards  forming  the  door.  The  door  may  then  be  swung  as 
shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  182,  attaching  the  hinges  on 
the  outside  opposite  the  cleats. 


Hog  Trough 


Fig.  36 


186 


SCHOOL-HOME  PROJECTS 


Profitable  hog  raising  requires  not  only  proper  housing 
facilities  but  also  economical  methods  of  feeding.  Many  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  corn  alone  is  not  an  economical  feed 
for  growing  hogs.  Feeds  containing  protein,  to  form  large 
frames,  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  corn.  A  good  legumi- 
nous pasture  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  together  with  corn  pro- 
vide a  good  growing  ration.  In  the  absence  of  pasture  such 
feeds  as  skim  milk,  wheat  shorts,  bran  or  tankage  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  corn.  Most  of  these  feeds  are  fed  in 
the  form  of  slops.  This  requires  some  form  of  trough.  The 
first  requirement  of  a  good  trough  is  that  it  be  constructed  so 
that  it  may  be  readily  cleaned.  The  simplest  and  one  of  the  most 
substantial  troughs  is  the  V  shaped  type  shown  in  Fig.  38. 

The  wide  board  in  these  troughs  should  be  the  thickness  of 
the  lumber  wider  than  the  narrow  one.  The  drawing  shows  all 
of  the  details  needed  in  its  construction.  The  boards  should 
be  planed  so  that  they  fit  perfectly  at  the  joint  and  securely 
nailed.  A  triangular  strip  should  be  nailed  in  the  bottom  to 
enable  the  hogs  to  reach  the  bottom  with  greater  ease.  No 
cracks  should  be  left  to  get  filled  with  slop  which  will  become 
sour  and  foul.  The  length  of  the  trough  should  depend  upon 
the  number  of  hogs  which  will  use  it  and  whether  it  is  to  be 
used  from  one  side  or  two.  A  trough  should  be  placed  upon  a 
platform  or  on  a  high,  dry  location  so  that  the  pigs  will  not 
get  their  feet  muddy.  Cleanliness  is  the  first  essential  in  secur- 
ing good  results  in  feeding  slops. 

Concrete  troughs  are  growing  in  popularity  because  they 
can  be  easily  cleaned.  For  the  method  of  making  a  concrete 
trough,  refer  to  page  198  in  the  section  on  concrete. 

Pigs,  when  large  enough,  should  be  shut  in  a  small  pen  and 
fattened  for  about  a  month  to  prepare  them  for  market.  Corn 
or  some  other  fat-producing  food  should  be  made  the  basis  of 
their  daily  ration.  This  pen  may  be  one  composed  of  movable 


Fig.  39 


ffog  Chute 


RAISING  HOGS 


187 


sections  so  that  it  may  be  easily  changed  to  a  new  location  or 
it  may  be  a  permanent  pen  with  a  concrete  floor,  which  can  be 
kept  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

If  the  shipping  point  is  only  a  short  distance,  the  hogs  may 
be  driven  early  in  the  morning  while  it  is  cool.  If  the  station 
is  a  considerable  distance  away,  the  hogs  will  have  to  be  hauled 
in  wagons.  This  will  require  a  loading  chute  and  a  hog  rack. 

The  loading  chute,  Fig.  39,  is  made  of  2x4  standards  and 
supports,  1x6  siding,  2x12  flooring  and  1x4  braces.  The 
working  drawing  will  enable  any  woodworker  to  construct  such 
a  chute.  Cleats,  I"xl^"x3'  should  be  securely  nailed  or 
screwed  to  the  floor  at  intervals  of  8"  to  10"  to  prevent  the  hogs 
from  slipping. 

The  hog  rack  shown  in  Fig.  40  is  planned  to  fit  the  com- 
bination box  described  on  page  149.  The  stakes  on  the  sides 
should  be  spaced  to  fit  the  iron  holders  on  the  wagon  bed.  The 
sides  are  composed  of  seven  %  x  4's,  spaced  2"  apart  or  six  if 
spaced  3"  apart.  The  ends  fit  in  slots  formed  by  nailing  two 
I"  x  l}/2"  strips  an  inch  apart  at  each  end  of  the  sides.  These 
ends  are  securely  held  in  place  by  two  y%"  rods  in  each  end  of 
the  rack.  This  rack  is  superior  in  hot  weather  to  one  set  on  top 
of  a  regular  wagon  box  on  account  of  the  better  opportunity  for 
the  circulation  of  the  air  due  to  the  base  of  this  rack  being  only 
6"  high  instead  of  12". 

If  one  does  not  have  the  .combination  box,  this  rack  may  be 
made  to  fit  a  common  wagon  box  by  replacing  the  stakes  by 
two  cleats  1"  x  3"  x  4',  nailed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  boards  and 
using  fewer  boards  for  each  side  and  the  front  end. 

Wet  sand,  hay  or  straw,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  hog 
rack  will  tend  to  keep  the  hogs  cool  in  warm  weather  while 
they  are  being  hauled  to  market.  The  driver  should  also  prevent 
the  hogs  from  piling  together  in  one  end  of  the  rack  because 
they  are  often  smothered  in  that  way. 


40 


S/rfe 

- 10  10" 


HOQ  Rack 


1 

lit: 
a±i 

tip 

=nr 
d& 

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zra 

iri 

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J      Shafted  tt>  fit  _    > 

" 

'2  Space 

188 


CONCRETE 

Concrete  is  an  artificial  stone  made  by  mixing  together  sand 
and  stone  with  cement  and  water  in  certain  specified  proportions. 
Concrete  is  not  a  new  invention  because  it  was  very  extensively 
used  as  far  back  as  Roman  times.  Many  of  the  concrete  struc- 
tures built  by  the  Romans  are  still  standing — silent  testimonials 
of  the  lasting  qualities  of  concrete.  It  is  only  recently,  how- 
ever, that  the  perfecting  and  cheapening  of  the  process  of  making 
Portland  Cement  has  resulted  in  a  widespread  use  of  concrete 
in  this  country. 

Portland  cement1  is  made  by  mixing  limestone  rock  with  a 
certain  proportion2  of  a  material  of  clayey  composition  such  as 
clay,  shale,  cement  rock,  or  blast  furnace  slag.  The  rock  and 
other  raw  materials  are  first  mined,  then  dried,  ground  to  a 
coarse  powder  and  stored  in  large  storage  bins.  These  materials 
are  then  proportioned  by  weight  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This 
mixture  is  then  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  fed  into  a  revolving 
kiln  where  it  is  subjected  to  a  temperature  varying  from  2500° 
F.  to  3000°  F.  This  extremely  high  temperature  fuses  or  melts 
these  materials  into  clinkers,  varying  in  size  from  %"  to  about 
1J^"  in  diameter.  Gypsum  is  then  added  in  the  proportion  of  2 
pounds  to  100  pounds  of  clinkers.  The  purpose  of  the  gypsum 
is  to  retard  the  setting  time  of  the  cement.  This  mixture  is 
ground  into  the  fine  Portland  cement  powder  which  is  stored 
in  bins  until  ready  for  packing. 

This  cement  is  packed  in  three  forms :  wooden  barrels,  con- 
taining 380  pounds ;  cloth  bags  of  95  pounds  and  paper  bags  of 
the  same  size.  The  cloth  bags  are  the  most  popular  on  account 
of  being  more  easily  handled  than  the  barrels  and  not  so  easily 
torn  as  the  paper  bags.  The  bag  also  offers  a  convenient  measur- 
ing unit  for  small  "batches"  of  concrete. 

The  purpose  of  using  the  stone  and  sand  with  the  cement 
is  to  cheapen  the  cost  of  the  concrete.  The  large  spaces  or  voids 
between  the  stones  or  gravel  are  filled  with  sand  and  the  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  sand  are  filled  with  cement.  There 
should  be  no  voids  in  an  ideal  concrete  mixture.  Fig.  1  illus- 
trates the  proper  proportions  for  a  1:2:4  mixture,  consisting  of 
1  part  of  cement  to  2  parts  of  sand  to  4  parts  of  stone  or  gravel. 

1  Portland    cement   was   discovered   by   Joseph    Aspdin,    of   England,    in 
1824.     He  named  it  "Portland"  cement,  because  the  mixture  when  hardened 
resembled  a  stone  found  on  the  island  of  Portland,  south  of  England. 

2  Standard    Portland    cement    contains    the    following-    elements:    silica 
20  to  24%;  lime  60  to  65%;  alumina  5  to  10%;  iron  oxide  2  to  5%;  magnesia 
1  to  4%;  and  sulphur  trioxide   %   to  1%%. 


MIXING  CONCRETE 


189 


Proportion  of  a  1:  i:  4  Mixture 


Sand 


Stone 


Concrete. 


Various  mixtures  of  cement,  sand  and  stone  or  gravel  are 
made,  depending  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  concrete  is  to  be 
put.  A  1:2:4  mixture  is  used  for  walls  of  silos  and  other  build- 
ings above  the  foundation.  It  is  also  used  for  reinforced  floors, 
beams,  columns  and  other  structures  subject  to  considerable 
vibration.  A  1 :3  :5  mixture  is  not  so  strong  but  is  usually  used 
for  foundations  and  the  lower  course  of  a  two-course  sidewalk 
or  floor.  A  1:2:3  mixture  is  considered  best  for  troughs,  tanks, 
fence  posts,  roofs  and  one-course  floors,  walks  or  pavements. 

If  a  very  smooth  surface  is  desired  for  ornamental  work,  the 
stone  or  gravel  is  not  used  in  the  mixture.  A  mixture  of  1  part 
cement  to  1  to  1^2  parts  of  sand  is  used  for  the  top  course  of  a 
two-course  floor.  A  1:2  mixture  is  sufficiently  smooth  for  the  sur- 
face of  walks  or  pavements.  This  mixture  is  also  used  for  the 
facing  surface  of  building  blocks,  while  a  less  expensive  mixture 
is  used  for  the  remaining  portions  of  the  blocks. 

After  the  kind  of  mixture  has  been  selected,  the  materials 
must  be  accurately  measured  and  properly  mixed.  For  the  1 :2 :4 
mixture,  two  measuring  boxes  are  needed.  The  sizes  of  these 
boxes  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  bags  of  cement  which 
are  used  in  one  batch.  For  a  two-bag  batch  the  sand  measuring 
box  should  be  2'  square  and  ll^"  high.  The  corresponding 
box  for  stone  or  gravel  should  be  4'  long,  2'  wide  and  11^"  high. 
These  measuring  boxes  are  constructed  without  tops  or  bottoms. 
The  usual  form  for  the  construction  of  these  boxes  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  Instead  of  this  construction,  a  rectangular  box  of 
the  proper  dimensions  may  be  made  and  strips  about  2"  wide 
nailed  on  the  sides  for  handles. 

How  to  mix  concrete:  A  good  platform  or  mixing  box 
must  be  provided  for  mixing  concrete  by  hand.  A  platform  9' 
wide  and  1(X  long  is  large  enough  for  a  mixing  board  for 
small  batches  of  concrete.  The  boards  used  in  this  platform 
should  be  tongued  and  grooved.  They  should  also  be  surfaced 
on  one  side  so  that  a  smooth  surface  will  be  provided  for  shovel- 


190 


CONCRETE 


Fig.  2       Measuring  &ox 


Fig.  3      Spading  Concrete 


Spade  or 
thin   boar* 


Spaded. 


Ptot  sfoac/ed 


ing.  One  inch  boards  will  be  sufficiently  strong  for  this  platform 
if  they  are  properly  braced  and  it  will  not  be  so  heavy  when  it  is 
necessary  for  the  platform  to  be  moved.  These  boards  with 
tight  joints  should  be  nailed  to  five  2x4  cleats  so  that  no  cement 
grout  will  be  able  to  run  through  the  cracks.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  concrete  from  running  off  the  platform,  a  2x2  strip 
should  be  tightly  nailed  around  the  edges  of  the  platform. 

The  sand  measuring  box  should  first  be  placed  near  one  side 
on  the  platform  and  filled  with  sand.  After  it  is  measured,  the 
sand  should  be  spread  out  in  a  layer  3"  or  4"  deep.  The  cement 
should  then  be  spread  as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  sand.  The  pile  of  sand  and  cement  is  next 
mixed  by  turning  it  over  on  the  other  side  of  the  platform.  The 
sand  and  cement  should  not  be  dumped  off  the  shovel  but  shaken 
off  the  end  and  sides  so  that  they  are  thoroughly  mixed  as  they 
fall.  A  second  shoveling  is  usually  needed  to  have  the  sand  and 
cement  properly  mixed.  The  mixture  should  then  be  spread  out 
and  the  stone  or  gravel  measuring  box  placed  on  top  and  filled 
with  stone  or  gravel.  After  the  box  is  removed,  the  stone  should 
be  scattered  out  evenly  over  the  pile. 

The  materials  are  now  ready  for  wetting.  About  10  gallons 
of  water  should  be  used  for  a  two-bag  batch  of  1 :2 :4  mixture  for 
a  medium  wet  mixture.  About  three-fourths  of  this  amount  of 
water  should  first  be  dashed  over  the  stone,  spreading  it  evenly 
over  the  pile.  The  mixture  should  next  be  turned  by  dumping 
a  shovel  full  and  dragging  the  shovel  back  over  the  stone.  This 
mixes  the  mortar  with  the  wet  stones.  The  remainder  of  the 
water  should  be  used  to  wet  any  dry  spots  that  appear.  About 
three  shovelings  are  required  for  this  stage  of  the  mixing.  The 
concrete  is  then  ready  for  placing  in  the  forms.  Since  concrete 
"sets"  in  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour  after  being  mixed, 
it  should  be  immediately  placed  in  the  forms  which  have  been 
previously  prepared  for  it 


CONSISTENCY  OF  CONCRETE  191 

The  mixing  platform  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by 
scrubbing  it  with  a  broom  and  water  after  the  day's  work.  If 
this  is  not  done,  small  particles  of  stone  will  be  cemented  to  the 
boards  and  this  will  make  shoveling  difficult  the  next  time  the 
platform  is  used. 

Power  mixing  machines  are  used  when  large  quantities  of 
concrete  are  used  as  in  pavements  or  extensive  foundations.  The 
measuring  for  these  machines  is  done  by  dumping  wheelbarrow 
loads  of  sand  and  gravel  on  the  feeding  chute  and  pouring  on  the 
proper  number  of  bags  of  cement. 

Consistency  of  Concrete:  There  are  three  types  of  con- 
sistency in  concrete  mixtures:  (1)  a  very  wet  mixture;  (2)  a 
medium  mixture  and  (3)  a  dry  mixture.  A  very  wet  mixture  is 
mushy  and  will  run  out  of  a  wheelbarrow  or  shovel.  This  type 
of  mixture  is  used  in  thin  walls  or  reinforced  work.  A  medium 
mixture  is  of  a  quaky  consistency  and  is  used  for  foundations, 
floors,  walks,  fenceposts,  etc.  A  dry  mixture  resembles  damp 
earth  and  requires  thorough  tamping  until  the  water  appears  on 
the  surface.  This  type  of  mixture  is  used  in  foundations  where 
it  is  desirable  that  the  concrete  set  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Spading  concrete,  as  the  name  suggests,  consists  of  running 
a  spade  or  thin  board  down  the  side  of  the  form  to  force  back 
the  coarse  pieces  of  stone  and  gravel  and  allow  the  finer  parts 
of  the  concrete  to  flow  to  the  outside  and  thus  give  a  smooth 
finish  to  the  outside  of  the  structure,  Fig.  3.  Should  spading 
not  result  in  a  smooth  enough  finish,  a  surface  coat  of  pure 
cement  mortar  may  be  used  to  accomplish  this  result.  If  the 
pure  cement  mortar  is  not  used,  there  is  danger  of  the  outside 
coat  peeling  off. 

Forms  for  concrete  projects:  Forms  for  concrete  work 
should  be  made  of  "green"  lumber.  Dry  lumber  will  tend  to 
absorb  moisture  from  the  concrete  unless  it  is  thoroughly  soaked 
in  water  before  it  is  used  in  the  forms.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  forms  be  very  accurately  constructed  and  that  no  cracks  or 
knot  holes  are  present  for  the  cement  grout  to  run  out.  For  this 
reason  a  good  grade  of  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  is  favored 
upon  fine  work.  In  laying  foundations,  cheap  lumber  is  usually 
used  for  the  forms  and  then  used  on  other  parts  of  the  building 
where  it  is  covered  by  other  finished  lumber.  Clay  may  be  used 
to  stop  any  cracks  or  knot  holes.  If  the  opening  is  large  a  board 
should  be  nailed  over  the  clay  on  the  outside  of  the  form  to 
prevent  the  pressure  of  the  concrete  from  pushing  the  clay 
through  the  opening.  In  order  to  insure  an  easy  separation  of 
the  form  from  the  concrete,  the  inside  of  the  form  should  be 
painted  with  some  mixture  that  will  insure  this  separation.  A 


192  CONCRETE 

mixture  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  kerosene  is  used  by  many  work- 
ers for  this  purpose.  It  is  not  necessary  to  recoat  the  form  each 
time  it  is  used.  Any  concrete  which  sticks  to  the  mold  should 
be  scraped  off  before  it  is  used  again. 

Two  kinds  of  forms  are  used  in  making  concrete  products, 
one  in  which  the  concrete  is  molded  in  a  solid  mass  in  a  one- 
piece  mold  and  a  second  type  in  which  a  second  form  or  core  is 
used  to  make  a  hollow  or  opening  through  the  concrete  object 
that  is  being  molded  in  an  outer  form.  Clay,  plaster  casts,  and 
lumber  are  used  to  make  these  inner  forms. 

Removal  of  forms:  The  forms  should  not  be  removed 
from  the  concrete  until  it  has  thoroughly  set.  This  usually  re- 
quires from  24  to  48  hours.  Where  it  is  convenient,  it  is  well  to 
leave  the  forms  for  several  days  longer  because  they  form  a 
protection  against  a  too  rapid  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the 
surface.  If  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  forms  immediately  after 
the  concrete  has  set,  it  should  be  sprinkled  twice  a  day  and  cov- 
ered by  a  piece  of  old  carpet,  canvas  or  burlap  to  prevent  the 
outside  from  drying  out  faster  than  the  inside.  Many  excellent 
pieces  of  concrete  work  have  been  marred  by  cracks  that  have 
been  caused  by  the  lack  of  proper  wetting  of  the  surface  during 
the  curing  period. 

A  concrete  sidewalk  should  be  covered  with  a  sheet  of  canvas 
for  a  few  days  and  kept  wet  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  cracking. 
If  a  canvas  covering  is  not  available,  a  layer  of  damp  earth  may 
be  used  to  cover  it  after  the  surface  has  hardened. 

Reinforcement:  Concrete  will  resist  great  compression  but 
it  does  not  have  very  much  power  to  resist  a  bending  force.  For 
this  reason  concrete  posts,  suspended  floors  and  other  concrete 
structures  subject  to  pulls  and  vibrations  must  be  reinforced  with 
steel  or  iron  rods  which  are  strong  in  tensile  strength. 

Class  Projects:     Many  of  the  projects  described  on  pages 

193  to  208  require  the  same  kind  of  concrete  mixture.    If  all  the 
forms  are  ready,  a  large  batch  of  concrete  can  be  mixed  at  one 
time  and  all  of  the  forms  filled  from  this  one  batch.    The  concrete 
can  be  more  thoroughly  mixed  and  will  result  in  less  waste  if 
mixed  in  large  batches  rather  than  each  pupil  mixing  a  small 
amount  for  his  particular  project. 

Community  Projects:  Sidewalks,  floors  and  steps  may  be 
made  for  patrons  of  the  school  for  merely  the  cost  of  the  materials 
because  this  is  an  excellent  opportunity  to  get  a  practical  training 
in  that  phase  of  concrete  work.  A  movable  mixing  platform 
should  be  made  for  this  kind  of  work. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


193 


Door     Weight 


lfe.4 


Wirt 


baseball  fame    Plate 


-I* 


Fig.  5 


DOOR  WEIGHT 

Many  glasses  in  doors  are  broken  by  the  wind  slamming 
the  doors  shut.  A  door  weight  will  prevent  them  from  being 
blown  shut  when  they  are  left  open  for  ventilation.  This'  is  one 
of  the  simplest  projects  that  may  be  selected  for  work  in  con- 
crete. The  form  for  the  door  weight,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  consists 
of  a  rectangular  box  which  is  2"  deep,  4"  wide  and  8"  long 
(inside  measurements).  A  1 :2  mixture  of  cement  and  sand 
should  be  used  for  this  project.  Before  filling  the  form  with 
concrete,  the  inside  should  be  painted  with  the  mixture  of  lin- 
seed oil  and  kerosene  to  prevent  the  concrete  from  sticking  to 
the  form. 

By  inserting  two  wires  bent  in  the  shape  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, a  handle  of  leather  or  heavy  cloth  may  be  put  on  the 
weight.  This  makes  it  much  easier  to  handle.  These  wires 
should  be  accurately  spaced  from  the  ends  and  sides  and  im- 
bedded at  least  ^4"  in  the  concrete  at  the  time  it  is  placed  in 
the  form.  The  sides  should  be  carefully  spaded. 

BASEBALL  HOME-PLATE 

Every  school  should  be  equipped  with  a  home-plate  for  the 
baseball  diamond.  The  shape  and  dimensions  of  a  home-plate 
are  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  base  of  the  form  should  be  laid  out 
and  squared  up  to  the  exact  dimensions.  Side  strips  may  then 
be  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  base,  forming  a  box  2"  deep. 
The  two  mitred  joints  should  be  cut  in  the  mitre  box  at  an 
angle  of  45°.  A  1 :2  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  should  be  used 
and  the  top  troweled  very  smooth  so  that  the  dust  may  be  easily 
brushed  off  during  the  progress  of  a  game.  The  top  edges 
should  be  slightly  rounded  with  an  edger  to  eliminate  sharp 
edges.  This  plate  should  be  sunk  nearly  level  with  the  ground 
so  that  the  edges  will  not  catch  the  feet  of  a  runner  when  he 
slides  for  the  homeplate. 


194  CONCRETE 

Foot  5cra/>er 

Sect/ on    A -A 


FOOT  SCRAPER 

A  concrete  base  for  a  foot  scraper,  Fig.  6,  also  offers  a 
practical  project  for  the  beginner  in  concrete  construction.  The 
'form  for  this  base  is  a  water-tight  box  with  any  convenient 
dimensions.  A  box  with  inside  measurements  of  2"  x  10"  x  12" 
makes  a  well  proportioned  base  for  a  scraper.  The  lumber 
should  be  put  together  with  screws  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
taken  apart  in  removing  the  form.  A  triangular  strip  of  wood 
YT."  wide  should  be  nailed  in  the  lower  edges  of  the  mold  in 
order  to  bevel  the  lower  edges  of  the  block. 

The  iron  part  of  the  scraper  is  made  of  a  strip  of  X"x  1" 
iron  10"  long,  welded  to  two  upright  pieces  of  the  same  material 
7"  in  length.  If  a  forge  is  not  available  this  part  of  the  scraper 
can  be  made  at  a  blacksmith  shop.  See  page  225  for  directions 
for  making  the  iron  portion  of  the  scraper.  Note  that  an  inch 
at  the  base  of  each  upright  piece  is  turned  at  right  angles  to 
hold  the  iron  more  firmly  in  the  concrete. 

Before  placing  the  concrete  in  the  form,  the  inside  of  the 
form  should  be  painted  as  described  in  the  description  of  the 
door  weight.  The  iron  scraper  should  be  braced  in  the  position 
in  which  it  is  to  remain.  This  may  be  done  by  nailing  strips 
across  the  top  of  the  form,  one  on  each  side  of  the  scraper. 

The  form  should  be  filled  with  a  1 :3  mixture  of  cement  and 
sand.  A  trowel  should  be  used  to  smooth  the  top  of  the  block 
and  either  an  edger  or  a  trowel  used  to  bevel  the  upper  edges  to 
correspond  to  the  bevel  made  by  the  triangular  wooden  strips 
that  were  placed  in  the  edges  of  the  bottom  of  the  form.  The 
form  may  be  removed  in  two  days  but  the  base  should  be  wet 
twice  a  day  for  4  to  8  days  to  properly  cure  the  outside. 


Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  vary  the  designs  of  projects  in  this 
section  and  also  to  design  other  simple  concrete  projects  not  described  in 
this  book. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


195 


or/7?  for  Concrete    Posts 
IA 


FENCE  POSTS 

Concrete  fence  posts,  if  properly  made  will  last  much  longer 
than  wooden  posts  and  cost  but  little  more.  Concrete  posts  are 
made  in  a  variety  of  shapes.  One  of  the  most  popular  types  is  a 
post  3"  square  at  the  top,  5"  square  at  the  base  and  7'  long.  This 
length  allows  the  post  to  be  set  2y2'  in  the  ground. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  horizontal  form  for  making  3  fence  posts, 
each  being  3^2 "  square  at  the  top  and  Sy2"  square  at  the  base. 
These  dimensions  are  used  to  give  a  post  of  greater  strength  than 
the  one  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  barrel  of  concrete  will  only  make  15  of  these  posts  while 
it  will  make  about  19  of  the  3"  size.  The  form  may  be  made 
with  the  smaller  dimensions  instead  of  the  ones  given  if  the 
worker  considers  the  smaller  posts  strong  enough  to  meet  his 
needs. 

A  platform  2'x8'  of  matched  lumber  nailed  to  2x4s  should 
be  made.  Four  pieces  of  2"  material  7'  \l/2"  long  are  tapered 
from  3^"  at  one  end  to  5^"  at  the  other  for  the  partitions  and 
sides  of  the  form.  The  small  end  piece  is  2"  x  3y2"  x  22".  Grooves 
3^"  apart  and  ^  of  an  inch  deep  are  cut  across  the  side  of  this 
end  piece  to  exactly  fit  the  ends  of  the  tapering  sides.  A  similar 
strip  2"x5^"x29"  is  grooved  at  intervals  of  5K"  to  fit  the 
other  ends  of  the  sides  and  partitions.  Cleats  are  tacked  at  the 
ends  and  sides  to  prevent  spreading  when  the  forms  are  filled. 
Hooks  are  used  on  the  ends  to  hold  the  form  together.  Small 
triangular  strips  4'  long  are  usually  tacked  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  form  to  bevel  the  edges  of  the  post  which  will  be  above 
the  ground. 

A  medium  wet  mixture  of  1  :2:3  concrete  should  be  used  for 


196  CONCRETE 

fence  posts.  Since  a  fence  post  is  subjected  to  considerable  side 
pull,  it  must  be  reinforced.  Four  heavy  }4"  wires  or  }4"  rods, 
bent  at  the  ends  and  placed  about  1"  from  each  corner,  are 
usually  used  for  this  purpose.  After  about  an  inch  of  the  mix- 
ture has  been  placed  in  a  form,  two  wires  should  be  placed  on 
the  concrete,  each  being  about  an  inch  from  the  edge  and  the 
ends  extending  to  within  \y2"  from  the  top  and  the  bottom. 
The  mold  is  then  filled  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the  mold 
and  the  other  two  wires  similarly  placed.  The  mold  is  next 
filled  and  leveled  even  with  the  top  of  the  form.  The  sides  should 
be  spaded  to  produce  a  smooth  surface  on  the  post.  No  gravel 
or  crushed  rock  larger  than  about  24"  should  be  used  on  ac- 
count of  the  nearness  of  the  reinforcing  rods  to  the  surface. 
Triangular  strips  the  same  size  as  those  used  in  the  bottom  of 
the  frame  should  be  pressed  into  the  corners  of  the  top  edges  of 
the  mold  so  that  the  post  is  uniformly  beveled  on  all  sides. 

The  tapering  form  of  this  post  will  make  it  possible  to  fasten 
the  fence  to  it  by  drawing  a  wire  taut  around  a  wire  of  the  fence 
and  around  the  post.  Twisted  wires  or  staples  bent  at  the  ends 
may  be  inserted  in  the  post  for  fasteners  but  these  usually  break 
or  rust  off  after  considerable  use.  Some  manufacturers  make 
holes  through  the  post  by  using  greased  rods  when  the  posts  are 
cast.  These  holes  tend  to  weaken  the  post  and  are  not  always  in 
the  proper  position  for  fastening  the  wires. 

Another  type  of  post  is  one  4"  square  at  the  top  and 
4"x6"  at  the  base.  One  advantage  of  this  type  is  that  one  can 
mold  as  many  in  a  single  form  as  he  wishes  because  they  are  all 
4"  wide  and  taper  on  only  two  sides.  Not  more  than  three 
or  four  of  the  double  tapered  posts  shown  in  figure  7  can  be 
molded  in  one  form  because  the  ends  tend  to  become  very 
angling  with  the  side's. 

Corner  posts  should  be  about  12"  square  and  be  placed  from 
3'  to  3l/2f  in  the  ground.  They  should  be  built  where  they  are 
to  be  used  on  account  of  their  great  weight.  A  perpendicular 
form  should  be  used  for  these  posts. 

The  posts  should  be  removed  from  the  form  in  about  24 
hours  and  set  in  a  vertical  position  so  that  they  will  dry  uni- 
formly on  all  sides.  They  should  also  be  wet  twice  a  day  so 
that  they  will  cure  properly.  Many  of  the  failures  in  making 
concrete  posts  have  been  due  to  carelessness  in  proper  curing 
of  the  posts. 

Steel  forms,  which  may  be  used  in  batteries,  varying  from 
four  to  ten  may  also  be  purchased.  It  is  not  profitable  to  buy 
these  forms,  however,  unless  a  large  number  of  posts  is  made. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


197 


Concrete   Hotbed 

fig.  6 


fu  f Strip 


CONCRETE  HOTBED 

Any  farmer  or  gardener,  who  is  permanently  located  can 
well  afford  to  put  up  a  concrete  hotbed.  It  will  last  much  longer 
than  one  with  board  walls  and  be  much  cheaper  in  the  end.  The 
fermenting  manure  does  not  affect  the  concrete  but  is  very  de- 
structive to  wood.  A  hotbed  should  be  located,  if  possible,  on 
the  south  side  of  a  building  where  the  air  will  be  warmest  for 
ventilating  in  the  day  time. 

In  making  a  permanent  hotbed,  the  size  of  the  sash  must 
first  be  found.  Standard  hotbed  sash  are  3'  wide  and  6'  long.  If 
one  wishes  to  make  a  hotbed  to  be  covered  with  three  standard 
sash,  the  excavation  should  be  made  about  6'  9"  wide  and  9'  10" 
long.  This  allows  for  walls  6"  thick.  Care  must  be  taken  to  get 
the  sides  of  the  excavation  perpendicular  and  the  corners  square. 

The  forms  for  the  walls  are  easily  made.  Some  matched 
boards  should  be  nailed  to  three  or  four  stakes  the  height  of  the 
wall.  These  walls  should  be  set  so  that  the  boards  are  6" 
from  the  dirt  wall.  These  inner  forms  should  be  braced  as 
shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  outside  forms  may  be  braced  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  with  the  inside  face  of  the  boards  even  with 
the  dirt  wall.  In  order  to. leave  a  notch  for  the  sash,  a  strip  about 
an  inch  wide  should  be  tacked  to  the  top  of  the  inside  frame  as 
shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  ends  are  made  in  a  similar  way,  except  that  the  top 
boards  must  be  slanted.  A  strip  should  be  nailed  to  the  top  of 
the  slanting  sides  to  furnish  a  depression  in  the  ends  for  the 
edges  of  the  two  outside  frames.  A  1 :3  :5  mixture  of  concrete 
will  be  sufficiently  strong  for  this  project  and  will  be  less  ex- 
pensive than  a  richer  mixture. 


198  CONCRETE 


Fig-9 

Hog  Trough   Form 

[            i 

-1  4"  1- 

u.  54"  ,  -4-4". 

i/\ 

Vv 

1 

r  :  V 
/                                                                                                                                                         \ 

/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   V 

HOG  TROUGH 

In  making  the  hog  trough,  shown  in  Fig.  9,  there  are  two 
parts  to  be  constructed  for  the  form.  The  outer  box  is  made 
with  a  depth  of  9",  a  width  of  15"  and  a  length  of  6'  (inside 
measurements).  An  inside  box  must  then  be  made  for  the 
cpre.  This  box  is  made  4"  wide  at  the  bottom  and  11"  wide  at 
the  top ;  5'  4"  long  at  the  bottom  and  5'  8"  long  at  the  top.  The 
boards  must  be  beveled  to  the  proper  angles  to  make  water  tight 
joints.  This  core  form  should  then  be  turned  upside  down  in  the 
outer  form  and  screwed  to  the  bottom,  leaving  a  space  2"  around 
the  lower  edges.  Small  triangular  strips  may  be  tacked  in  the 
corners  of  the  outer  box  to  bevel  off  the  sharp  edges  of  the  outer 
walls. 

After  the  form  is  completed,  the  inside  surfaces  should  be 
painted  with  the  mixture  of  linseed  oil  and  kerosene.  The  form 
is  then  ready  for  filling.  A  1  :2 :3  mixture,  medium  wet,  and  well 
spaded  should  be  used  for  this  trough.  Every  trough  should  be 
reinforced.  Heavy  wire  or  small  rods  may  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  wires  or  rods  should  be  bent  so  that  they  extend 
around  the  core  about  an  inch  from  the  outside  form.  About  1" 
of  concrete  should  be  placed  in  the  form  and  one  of  the  rein- 
forcing wires  or  rods  laid  on  top.  About  3"  more  of  concrete 
and  another  reinforcing  wire,  and  a  third  layer  of  concrete  and 
the  third  reinforcement  should  be  placed.  An  additional  wire 
should  be  run  through  the  center  of  the  concrete  above  the  core. 
The  form  should  then  be  filled,  tamped  until  water  shows  on  the 
surface  and  leveled  off  with  a  straight  edge.  After  about  48 
hours  the  form  should  be  carefully  removed  and  the  inside 
painted  with  a  pure  cement  mortar  to  leave  a  smooth  surface. 
The  trough  should  be  kept  wet  until  it  is  cured. 

If  clay  is  available,  the  inside  core  of  the  mold  may  be  shaped 
out  of  clay  instead  of  using  a  board  core. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


199 


Fig.  10 


Water/ng     Trough    Form 


CONCRETE  WATERING  TROUGH 

The  forms  for  making  a  concrete  watering  trough  are^shown 
in  Fig.  10.  These  forms  should  be  made  of  matched  lumber  to 
make  them  water  tight.  The  outside  form  is  in  the  shape  of  a 
rectangular  box  with  inside  measurements  of  4'  x  9'.  The  boards 
are  held  in  place  by  being  nailed  to  stakes  which  have  been 
driven  into"  the  ground.  The  end  boards  are  also  nailed  to  the 
sides  to  make  the  outer  form  more  secure.  This  form  may  be 
made  more  rigid  by  bracing  the  stakes  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  inner  form  which  molds  the  depression  in  the  trough 
is  3'x8'  at  the  top  and  2'x7'  at  the  bottom.  There  is  less 
danger  of  the  trough  being  split  by  water  freezing  in  it,  if  it  is 
built  in  this  shape.  The  inner  form  is  held  in  place  by  being 
nailed  to  2x4  supports  resting  on  the  top  of  the  outer  form. 

The  walls  of  this  trough  may  be  reinforced  with  wire  mesh. 
A  form  should  be  made  out  of  this  mesh  with  dimensions  6" 
larger  than  those  of  the  inner  form.  The  outer  form  should  be 
filled  to  a  depth  of  about  12"  and  the  reinforcement  placed  in 
position.  The  inner  form  may  then  be  suspended  in  position  and 
the  rest  of  the  form  filled.  A  1 :2 :4  medium  wet  mixture  will  be 
found  suitable  for  making  this  trough.  The  sides  of  the  concrete 
should  be  well  spaded  to  make  the  surface  smooth  in  appearance. 
The  inside  of  the  tank  should  be  plastered  with  a  coat  of  pure 
cement  to  make  the  concrete  water  proof. 

The  same  plan  may  be  modified  to  make  a  tank  of  any 
dimensions.  If  the  builder  wishes  to  save  concrete,  a  form  2' 
wide,  7'  long  and  9"  deep  may  be  made  of  old  boards,  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  outer  form  and  filled  with  cinders  or  gravel. 

The  forms  may  be  removed  in  two  days  but  the  concrete 
should  be  kept  wet  for  two  weeks  and  covered  with  a  canvas  to 
keep  the  outside  surfaces  from  drying  too  quickly  and  cracking. 


200 


CONCRETE 


Fig.ll 


Flower     3  ox 


v/fw  o/tcf  side  Section  of  for r, 


CONCRETE  FLOWER  BOX 

The  form  for  this  concrete  flower  box  consists  of  two  boxes 
with  sloping  sides.  Consequently  the  bevel  must  be  used  on  all 
of  the  edges  of  the  bottom  boards  to  get  accurate  joints.  The 
T  bevel  should  be  set  to  give  a  slope  of  ll/2"  in  8". 

The  top  of  the  bottom  board  of  the  outer  form,  is  8"  wide 
and  37"  long.  The  sides  and  ends  of  the  outer  form  should  be 
6^5"  high  and  be  screwed  to  the  base  board  so  they  may  be 
easily  removed  in  taking  down  the  form.  Strips  \l/2r>  high 
should  be  nailed  to  the  tops  of  the  sides  and  ends.  They  are 
set  out  y%"  from  the  inner  edges  to  make  the  projecting  rim 
around  the  top  of  the  box.  The  top  of  the  outer  form  should 
measure  11"  wide  and  3'  4"  long.  Designs  may  be  made  in  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  box  by  properly  spacing  and  tacking  T4" 
or  y%"  boards  to  the  insides  of  the  outer  forms.  The  edges  of 
these  boards  should  be  beveled  because  it  not  only  gives  a  neater 
design  but  enables  the  outer  form  to  be  removed  with  greater 
ease.  The  design  in  the  illustration  is  merely  suggestive. 

The  inside  form  is  a  box  with  outside  measurements  as  fol- 
lows :  Top— 8"  x  37"  ;  bottom— 5^"  x  34^"  ;  height— 6}^".  This 
form  is  suspended  by  two  strips  tacked  to  it  and  the  top  of  the 
outer  form. 

The  flower  box  should  be  made  with  a  wet  mixture  of  1 :2 
cement  and  clean  sand.  Wire  mesh  may  be  used  for  reinforce- 
ment for  this  box  by  bending  it  into  the  same  shape  as  the  inner 
form  but  with  dimension  lj£*  greater,  except  the  height  which 
should  be  the  same. 

The  forms  should  be  carefully  removed  after  two  days  and 
the  box  placed  under  water  for  several  days  to  cure.  If  a  smooth 
finish  is  desired,  the  surface  may  be  coated  with  pure  cement  and 
rubbed  down. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


Fig.  12 


LAWN  PEDESTAL 

The  lawn  pedestals  shown  in  Fig.  12  may  each  be  molded 
in  one  form  or  molded  in  three  separate  sections  and  put  to- 
gether with  mortar. 

The  form  for  the  base  is  a  frame  15"  square  and  4"  high. 
The  shaft  of  the  pedestal  is  made  in  a  form  13"  square  and  22" 
high.  This  shaft  may  be  molded  hollow  by  inserting  an  inner 
form  about  6"  square  and  22"  high  in  the  center  of  the  shaft 
form.  The  design  on  the  sides  is  made  by  thin  boards,  having 
beveled  edges,  and  which  are  tacked  on  each  of  the  inner 
faces  of  the  form.  The  form  for  the  top  has  sloping  sides.  It  is 
3"  high,  17"  square  at  the  top  and  14j/2 "  square  at  the  lower 
edge  on  the  straight  sided  pedestal  and  11"  square  at  the  top 
and  8"  square  at  the  lower  edge  on  the  sloping  sided  pedestal. 

A  1 :2  mixture  should  be  used  in  casting  all  of  the  parts  of 
the  pedestal.  If  the  three  parts  are  cast  separately,  they  should 
be  put  together  with  mortar  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of 
cement  and  sand.  The  pedestal  should  either  be  immersed  in 
water  or  kept  wet  and  covered  with  canvas  for  about  two  weeks 
to  allow  it  to  cure  properly. 

The  designs  on  the  edges  of  the  top  are  made  with  beveled 
strips  tacked  to  the  insides  of  the  top  form.  The  shaft  may 
also  be  made  with  slanting  instead  of  perpendicular  sides.  By 
changing  the  height  of  the  pedestal  and  increasing  the  depth  of 
the  top,  a  bird  bath  may  be  constructed  on  fhe  same  general 
plan  with  the  addition  of  a  form  for  making  the  hollow  for  the 
bath.  The  designing  of  a  flower  urn  or  small  square  flower  box 
to  be  placed  on  this  pedestal  offers  another  interesting  and 
closely  related  project.  Fig.  13  shows  a  design  of  an  urn. 

Be  sure  to  have  the  forms  thoroughly  soaked  in  water  before 
using.  Dry  lumber  will  absorb  moisture  and  cause  the  project 
to  dry  too  quickly  and  crack. 


202 


CONCRETE 


.  13 


Flower   Urn 

20 


Urn  form 
/•Clay  Clay, 


Base  form 


-iz 
Section 


FLOWER  URN 

The  urn  shown  in  Fig.  13  should  be  constructed  in  two  parts. 
To  make  the  bowl,  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  8^2"  should  be  laid 
off  on  a  board  platform.  On  this  circle  a  clay  core  4^"  deep 
should  be  built  up  and  rounded  to  make  it  the  same  shape  as 
the  hollow  of  the  bowl.  A  concave  tin  template  should  be  cut 
the  shape  of  the  outside  curve  of  the  bowl  and  used  to  give  the 
proper  curve  to  the  outside  of  this  core. 

For  the  outer  part  of  the  form,  a  board  frame  20"  square 
and  6"  deep  (inside  measurements)  should  be  made.  This  frame 
should  be  covered  with  y2"  lumber.  The  diagonals  of  the  in- 
side of  the  box  should  be  drawn  and  with  the  point  of  in- 
tersection as  a  center,  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  2l/2"  laid 
out.  This  circle  should  be  carefully  sawed  out  with  a  com- 
pass saw  and  the  sides  and  corners  of  the  box  filled  with  clay. 
If  a  few  nails  are  driven  in  the  sides  of  the  box  before  putting 
in  the  clay,  they  will  help  hold  the  clay  in  place.  The  convex 
template  (left  by  cutting  out  the  concave  one)  may  be  used  to 
shape  the  clay  which  forms  the  outside  of  the  mold.  This  outer 
part  of  the  mold  should  then  be  inverted  over  the  core,  with  ex- 
actly \y2 "  left  between  the  inner  and  outer  parts  of  this  form. 

The  circular  form  for  the  base,  12"  in  diameter,  may  be 
made  of  cardboard  or  tin.  The  lower  edge  of  the  mold  should 
be  filled  with  clay  and  shaped  with  a  template  cut  to  the  proper 
curve.  A  wood  circle  5"  in  diameter  and  J^"  thick  should  be 
placed  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  base  to  make  the  hollow  for 
the  base  of  the  bowl. 

A  1 :2  wet  mixture  should  be  used  for  the  urn.  While  the 
concrete  is  still  workable,  the  outer  form  should  be  removed 
and  the  surfaces  smoothed  with  a  template.  The  two  parts  of 
the  urn  may  then  be  cemented  together. 


PROJECTS  IN  CONCRETE 


203 


Fig.  14 


Lawn    Seat 


LAWN  SEAT 

The  form  for  the  slab  of  the  lawn  seat,  Fig.  14,  is  merely  a 
box  2^4"  deep,  16"  wide  and  V  6"  long.  Small  triangular  strips 
should  be  nailed  in  the  four  lower  corners  to  bevel  the  edges  of 
the  slab.  Wire  mesh  should  be  placed  about  24"  from  the  bottom 
of  the  slab  to  reinforce  it.  Two  dowels  should  be  set  in  the 
bottom  of  the  form  5"  from  each  side  and  8y2"  from  each  end, 
projecting  2"  into  the  form.  These  dowels  will  leave  holes  in 
which  iron  rods  may  be  inserted  to  help  brace  the  top  to  the  legs. 

The  form  for  the  end  is  much  more  complex.  It  consists  of 
a  box  5"  wide  and  15*4"  long.  The  side  of  this  form  is  11" 
wide  at  the  top  and  14"  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  shape  of 
the  end  is  obtained  by  nailing  boards  with  beveled  edges  on 
the  sides  and  ends  of  the  form.  The  design  is  made  by 
wooden  figures  nailed  to  a  thin  board  which  is  tacked  on 
the  face  of  one  of  the  inserted  boards.  The  inner  surface  of 
each  leg  is  plain.  The  wooden  figures  must  be  mounted  back- 
wards on  the  form  because  they  print  the  same  as  type.  Bolts, 
the  same  size  as  the  dowels  in  the  top,  should  be  placed  in  the 
top  of  each  leg  and  spaced  to  fit  the  dowel  holes  in  the  top  slab. 

A  1 :2  mixture  of  concrete  should  be  used.  A  wet  mixture 
should  be  used  for  the  legs  but  a  much  drier  mixture  may  be 
used  for  the  top  and  thoroughly  tamped.  After  a  day  or  two  the 
top  should  be  smoothed  by  rubbing  it  with  a  brick  and  fine  sand. 
The  seat  should  be  cemented  to  the  legs  where  it  is  to  be  used 
on  account  of  the  weight  of  the  whole  seat.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  curing  this  seat  as  mentioned  in  the  discussions  of  the 
previous  projects. 

If  the  legs  are  not  removed  before  they  dry  out,  they  are  apt 
to  crack.  The  forms  for  the  legs  should  be  removed  after  about 
24  hours  and  the  legs  immersed  in  a  tank  of  water  to  cure. 


204  CONCRETE 

Fig.  15  Concrete    S/de   Walk 


Straight  ecfee 

Surface  Jaytr 


SfeAe 

2  x  4 form 

^-k 


CONCRETE  SIDE  WALK 

,  The  excavation  for  a  concrete  side  walk  should  be  made  at 
least  6"  wider  than  the  walk  is  to  be  and  about  9"  deep.  The 
lower  6"  should  be  filled  with  cinders,  gravel  or  crushed  stone. 
This  will  provide  a  drain  under  the  walk  and  prevent  an  up- 
heaval of  the  walk  due  to  water  collecting  under  the  walk  and 
freezing.  This  sub-base  of  cinders  or  stone  should  be  thor- 
oughly tamped  with  a  heavy  iron  tamper.  On  top  of  this  sub- 
base  2x4s  should  be  placed  for  the  sides  of  the  form  for  the 
walk.  A  stretched  cord  and  a  board  gauge  the  width  of  the  walk 
should  be  used  to  accurately  locate  these  sides.  They  should  be 
securely  fastened  in  place  by  stakes  driven  on  the  outside  at 
intervals  of  2'  or  3'. 

A  medium  wet  mixture  should  then  be  placed  in  the  form  for 
a  base  and  leveled  off  with  a  base  gauge  (see  figure  16).  A  1 :3  :5 
mixture  should  be  used  for  this  lower  course.  The  lower  course 
must  be  tamped  until  water  appears  on  the  surface.  A  coat  of 
pure  cement  mortar  should  then  be  spread  in  a  thin  layer  over 
the  top  of  this  lower  course  in  order  to  make  a  strong  bond  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  courses.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  top 
coat  may  peel  off.  The  remainder  of  the  form  should  be  filled 
with  a  1 :2  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  for  the  top  course  and  this 
course  leveled  off  with  a  straight  edge. 

The  top  of  the  walk  may  be  smoothed  with  either  a  metal  or 
wooden  trowel.  A  wooden  trowel  leaves  a  rough  surface  which 
prevents  the  walk  from  becoming  so  slippery  in  rainy  weather, 
while  a  metal  trowel  leaves  a  smoother  finish  but  one  which  is 
apt  to  become  slippery. 

A  jointer  should  be  run  across  the  walk  at  right  angles  to  the 


CONCRETE  SIDEWALK 


205 


Fig.  16 

Metal  trowel. 


S/de   Watt  Too/3 


Jointer 


sides  at  regular  intervals  varying  from  about  24"  in  narrow  walks 
to  about  y  in  wide  walks.  This  can  be  accurately  done  by 
laying  a  board  with  a  straight  edge  across  the  walk  at  right 
angles  with  the  edge  and  running  the  jointer  along  the  edge  of 
the  board.  These  grooves  divide  the  walk  into  sections,  any  one 
of  which  may  be  easily  removed  and  replaced  if  it  cracks  or  is 
damaged  in  any  way.  The  walk  should  be  finished  by  running 
an  edger  along  the  edges  to  prevent  them  from  being  so  easily 
chipped. 

A  concrete  walk  should  be  wet  every  day  for  three  or  four 
days  and  covered  with  a  canvas  in  order  to  prevent  the  top  sur- 
face from  drying  too  soon  and  cracking.  If  a  strip  of  canvas  is 
not  available,  a  covering  of  wet  sand  or  sawdust  may  be  used 
after  the  concrete  has  thoroughly  set. 

Floors:  Concrete  floors  for  porches,  basements,  barns  and 
feed  lots  are  coming  rapidly  into  favor.  They  are  more  durable 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  cleaned  renders  them  much 
more  sanitary  than  board  floors.  Concrete  floors  should  be  con- 
structed in  the  same  manner  as  a  side  walk.  On  account  of  the 
removal  of  the  forms,  concrete  floors  are  laid  in  rows.  After  the 
first  rows  are  hard,  the  forms  are  removed  ctnd  the  other  rows 
filled  in.  An  outside  floor  should  be  laid  with  a  slight  slope  so 
that  the  water  will  drain  off  in  the  winter.  A  trench  about  18" 
deep  should  be  dug  around  a  hog  feeding  floor  and  a  footing 
placed  in  it  to  prevent  the  hogs  from  undermining  it  with  hog 
wallows.  Light  floors  should  be  made  4"  thick  and  floors  which 
are  subject  to  heavy  loads  should  be  made  6"thick.  If  a  floor 
is  large  expansion  joints  should  be  provided  to  allow  for  the 
contraction  and  expansion  due  to  the  changes  in  temperature. 
These  cracks  may  be  filled  with  tar  or  asphalt. 


206 


CONCRETE 


rod 


Where  edges 
of  metal  meet 

-Sheet  iron 


SawAerf- 

Cap  — >€K  ^Hqle  bored 
tofit  pipe 


LAWN  ROLLER 

With  the  spring  thaws  come  the  rough  lawns.  The  frost 
coming  out  of  the  ground  causes  the  sod  to  raise  up  in  humps, 
which,  if  not  rolled  out  while  the  lawn  is  soft,  will  become  set 
and  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  lawn.  Rollers  used  for  smooth- 
ing lawns  are  made  either  of  metal,  wood  or  concrete. 

A  concrete  roller  is  easily  made,  is  cheaper  than  one  made 
of  metal  or  wood  and  can  be  designed  to  suit  one's  individual 
needs.  A  roller  about  18"  in  diameter  and  24"  long  is  of  a 
convenient  size  for  general  purposes  and  can  be  easily  operated 
by  one  person.  A  roller  of  this  size  will  weigh  from  525  to  600 
pounds. 

There  are  two  methods  of  casting  a  lawn  roller,  one  a  form 
made  of  metal  and  wood  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  17  and  one  where 
the  roller  is  cast  in  a  sewer  pipe  set  small  end  down  on  a  wooden 
platform.  In  either  case  the  pipe  or  rod  which  is  to  be  the  axle 
should  be  held  in  the  exact  center  of  the  form  while  the  roller  is 
being  made.  Otherwise  the  roller  will  travel  unevenly  when  put 
into  use  and  be  hard  to  operate. 

The  wood  and  metal  form  is  constructed  as  follows:  On  a 
square  platform  6"  or  8"  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  roller  a 
circle  with  the  same  diameter  as  the  roller  should  be  drawn, 


LAWN  ROLLER  207 

Six  boards  should  be  arranged  over  this  circle  as  shown  in  B  Fig. 
17  and  nailed  together.  A  circle  of  the  same  diameter  should  be 
drawn  on  this  form  and  the  inside  of  the  form  sawed  out  and 
smoothed  to  the  circular  lines.  The  curve  in  the  base  blocks  can 
be  determined  in  the  same  way.  The  upper  form  is  held  in 
place  by  four  2x4s  as  shown  in  A  Fig.  17.  A  hole  just  large 
enough  to  hold  the  axle  rod  or  pipe  is  bored  in  the  center  of  the 
platform  and  also  through  the  brace  bar  nailed  across  the  top  of 
the  form.  A  piece  of  sheet  iron  as  wide  as  the  length  of  the 
roller  and  as  long  as  the  circumference  -of  the  circle1  is  cut  and 
fitted  into  the  form.  This  metal  form  is  kept  from  bulging  and 
separating  at  the  joint  by  hoops  of  No.  16  wire,  formed  round  it 
at  intervals  of  6". 

Painting  the  inside  of  the  form  with  a  mixture  to  prevent 
the  concrete  from  sticking  to  the  form  should  not  be  neglected. 
A  1 :2 :4  medium  wet  mixture  should  be  used  to  make  a  roller. 
The  sides  should  be  carefully  spaded  to  insure  the  outer  surface 
of  the  roller  being  smooth.  In  case  a  tile  form  is  used  the  con- 
crete should  only  come  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  bell.  The  roller 
should  be  allowed  to  set  for  10  or  12  days  before  removing  the 
form.  If  a  tile  form  is  used  it  will  be  necessary  to  break  the 
tile  in  pieces  with  a  heavy  hammer  and  cold  chisel,  consequently 
a  defective  tile  should  be  used  if  ,it  is  possible  to  secure  one 
that  will  answer  the  purposes. 

The  handle  can  be  made  of  wood  and  metal,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  A  blacksmith  will  shape  the  pieces  C  and  D 
for  a  small  charge  if  no  forge  is  available.-  In  addition  to  the 
hole  for  the  pipe  in  the  handle,  a  saw  kerf  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  makes  it  possible  for  the  bolts  to  grip  the  pipe  firmly. 

If  a  pipe  is  used  as  an  axle,  the  handle  is  held  on  by  caps. 
If  a  rod  is  used,  it  must  be  threaded  and  a  nut  screwed  on  each 
end.  In  either  case  it  is  advisable  to  have  one  or  two  washers 
between  the  nut  or  cap  and  the  handle,  and  between  the  handle 
and  the  concrete.  Since  the  roller  is  to  be  used  with  a  back- 
ward as  well  as  a  forward  pull,  to  make  sure  that  the  nuts  will 
stay  on  the  axle,  the  ends  of  the  rod  should  be  riveted  after  the 
nuts  have  been  screwed  on.  In  case  a  pipe  is  used,  the  threads 
of  the  pipe  should  be  painted  and  the  caps  screwed  on  while 
the  paint  is  still  wet.  The  roller  should  not  be  used  until  the 
paint  is  thoroughly  dry  so  that  the  caps  will  not  come  off  when 
the  roller  is  pulled  backwards. 


1  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  determined  by  multiplying  the  diam- 
eter by  3.1416. 


208 


CONCRETE 


Fig.  18 


Cores 


Cardboard  __ 
fastened  on  tv/fo  brads 


Screws 


AQUARIUM  CASTLES. 

A  castle  for  an  aquarium  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
indoor  concrete  work.  It  will  beautify  the  aquarium  and  supply 
the  fish  with  something  which  they  enjoy.  A-Fig  18  shows  a 
rock  castle  through  which  the  fish  can  swim.  Such  a  formation 
is  made  by  building  up  instead  of  pouring.  A  1 :1  mixture  of 
cement  and  sand,  with  water  enough  added  to  bring  it  to  the  con- 
sistency of  mortar,  is  spread  around  the  cores.  Rocks  of  pleasing 
color  and  shape  are  partly  imbedded  in  the  fresh  concrete  in  such 
a  way  that  the  exposed  parts  give  a  pleasing  shape  to  the  whole 
castle.  Rocks  of  irregular  shape  stick  into  the  concrete  better 
than  round  rocks.  The  most  effective  results  are  obtained  when 
rocks  of  granite-like  quality  are  broken  and  the  newly  exposed 
surfaces  placed  toward  the  outside. 

Unusual  care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  cores  and  mould- 
ing board  are  thoroughly  oil  soaked.  Otherwise  water  will  soak 
into  them  as  the  concrete  is  applied,  causing  them  to  expand 
and  crack  the  concrete  as  it  dries.  By  notching  one  core  into 
the  other,  B-Fig.  18,  the  openings  meet  in  the  center  of  the  castle. 

A  castle  such  as  C-Fig.  18  can  be  poured  in  a  form  in  the 
same  way  as  the  flower  box  (Page  200),  is  poured. 


TREE  REPAIRING 


209 


Fig.  19 


Box  Scraper    /famrner      paint  truth] 


Opening  cf  cavfy 


Fig.ZZ 


TREE  REPAIRING 

Another  phase  of  concrete  work  deserving  of  much  atten- 
tion is  the  cleaning  out,  filling  and  sealing  of  the  decayed  por- 
tions of  trees.  Shade  trees  are  sometimes  not  fully  appreciated 
until  they  have  been  destroyed,  either  by  being  blown  down  or 
by  dying  from  decay.  A  good  shade  tree  often  adds  several 
hundreds  of  dollars  to  the  value  of  a  property.  It  takes  years  for 
it  to  grow  to  a  sufficient  size  to  produce  shade,  while  its  destruc- 
tion may  be  accomplished  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  People 
are  beginning  to  realize  that  decaying  trees  should  'be  properly 
cared  for. 

The  growing  part  of  a  tree  trunk  is  just  under  the  bark. 
(See  section  on  Wood  and  Lumber.)  Often  a  tree  trunk  is 
snagged  by  the  hub  of  a  wagon  or  gnawed  by  a  horse  so  that 
the  protecting  bark  and  the  growing  part  are  broken,  leaving 
the  heart  wood  of  the  tree  exposed  to  the  elements  and  to  boring 
insects.  This  frequenlty  results  in  the  inner  portion  of  the  tree 
becoming  decayed,  only  slightly  at  first,  but  in  time  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  tree  trunk  becomes  too  weak  to  stand  the 
strain  of  heavy  winds. 


210  CONCRETE 

A  limb,  which  has  been  broken  and  has  been  allowed  to 
remain  without  being  properly  pruned  and  treated,  often  absorbs 
moisture  and  transmits  it  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  tree.  To 
all  outward  appearances  the  tree  is  sound,  the  crown  is  perfect 
in  shape  and  healthy  in  appearance  but  moisture  seeping  into 
the  heart  wood  has  started  a  fungus  growth,  insects  have  been 
attracted  to  the  diseased  part  and  before  long  large  portions  of 
the  inner  part  of  the  trunk  are  weakened  or  destroyed. 

In  order  to  repair  or  doctor  a  defective  tree  trunk,  the 
decayed  or  affected  portion  must  first  be  removed.  This  should 
be  done  during  the  summer  when  not  much  sap  is  passing 
through  the  tree.  If  it  is  done  at  the  season  of  the  year  when 
the  sap  is  flowing  most  freely,  the  sap  will  ooze  out  and  its 
strength  be  lost.  It  should  also  be  done  without  destroying 
any  more  of  the  trunk,  especially  the  growing  part,  than  is 
necessary.  One  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  make  the  tree 
stronger  and  cutting  away  too  much  would  simply  defeat  this 
purpose,  however,  all  decayed  wood  must  be  removed! 

The  tools  needed  in  addition  to  the  concrete  mixing  tools 
already  mentioned  are  as  follows :  a  heavy  mallet,  one  or  two 
heavy  socket  gouges,  a  large  auger  or  a  brace  and  auger  bit,  a 
box  scraper,  a  rammer  and  a  paint  brush,  (Fig.  19).  If  extremely 
large  cavities  are  to  be  filled,  the  work  of  removing  the  decayed 
wood  can  be  performed  more  easily  and  quickly  if  an  adze  is 
used. 

An  opening  is  first  made,  with  the  gouge  and  mallet,  through 
the  bark  and  growing  part  of  the  tree,  directly  in  front  of  the 
point  where  the  wood  is  to  be  removed.  Since  the  trunk  con- 
tains sap,  it  will  be  found  that  cutting  it  with  the  gouge  is  a 
difficult  matter  as  compared  to  chiselling  seasoned  wood.  The 
wood  should  be  removed  with  clean  cut  chips.  It  should  not  be 
split  or  torn  out.  Besides  removing  the  decayed  parts,  the  cavity 
must  be  properly  shaped  so  that  once  the  concrete  is  placed  in 
it,  it  cannot  fall  out;  in  other  words,  the  inner  portion  of  the 
cavity  should  be  larger  than  the  opening.  Fig.  20  shows  cavities 
correct  and  incorrect  in  shape.  The  bark  should  be  cut  back 
from  the  edge  of  the  opening  for  about  one-half  inch  in  order 
to  prevent  bruising  it  while  cutting  away  the  decayed  portion. 
If  it  is  difficult  to  get  back  into  any  part  of  the  cavity,  the  auger 
may  be  used  to  rough  out  that  part  and  the  surface  finally 
smoothed  with  the  gouge. 

The  walls  of  the  cavity  should  be  as  smooth  as  possible, 
paring  them  with  the  gouge  in  small  places  and  surfacing  them 
with  the  box  scraper  in  large  places.  After  the  cavity  is  made 
the  walls  should  be  allowed  to  dry  out  for  several  days  and 


TREE  REPAIRING  211 

then,  to  protect  them  from  further  decay,  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly painted  with  coal  tar,  melted  pitch  or  creosote.  This 
coating  should  be  allowed  to  dry  out  and  harden  for  a  week  or 
ten  days  and  then  the  cavity  filled  with  concrete. 

The  mixture  for  small  and  medium  sized  cavities  should 
consist  of  one  part  of  cement  to  two  parts  of  sand.  Since  only 
a  small  portion  of  it  can  be  placed  in  the  tree  at  one  time,  the 
mixture  should  be  mixed  dry  and  water  added  to  a  small  part 
of  it  as  it  is  needed.  The  mixture  must  be  quite  dry  as  com- 
pared to  that  used  for  other  concrete  work.  A  test  for  the 
proper  amount  of  moisture  is  to  squeeze  some  of  the  mixture 
in  the  hand.  It  should  be  just  wet  enough  to  retain  the  shape 
or  imprint  of  the  hand  without  water  being  squeezed  from  it 
and  at  the  same  time  it  should  crumble  when  touched.  Only 
a  small  shovel  full  should  be  placed  in  the  tree  at  one  time. 
This  should  be  thoroughly  tamped  in  with  the  rammer  or  a 
blunt  stick.  The  tighter  this  is  pounded  in  the  better.  In  other 
concrete  work,  where  the  mixture  is  thin  enough  to  flow,  it 
settles  and  becomes  very  compact,  but  with  this  slightly  moist 
mixture  it  must  be  made  compact  by  pounding  it  together.  The 
cavity  should  be  filled  only  to  within  one-half  inch  of  the  bark 
line  and  the  surface  smoothed  with  a  trowel.  Ordinary  mixtures 
,  of  concrete  shrink  when  they  dry.  This  mixture  being  only 
slightly  moist  retains  the  same  bulk  after  it  becomes  hard.  If 
it  were  not  for  this  fact,  the  concrete  would  not  strengthen  the 
trunk.  Several  days  will  be  required  for  the  surface  of  this 
concrete  to  harden  and  it  will  take  many  weeks  for  the  entire 
mass  to  become  hard. 

After  the  surface  of  the  concrete  has  become  thoroughly 
dry,  it  should  be  painted  over  with  tar  to  keep  out  the  moisture. 
It  may  also  be  painted  a  color  to  match  the  bark  of  the  tree  after 
the  tar  has  been  thoroughly  dried  out. 

If  the  tree  is  quite  hollow  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  have  an 
opening  for  any  great  distance  through  the  bark  and  sap  wood, 
a  long  bolt  should  be  placed  through  the  tree  from  side  to  side, 
3"  or  4"  from  the  edge  of  the  cavity,  Fig.  21.  This  bolt  can  be 
placed  in  position  to  see  that  it  fits  and  then  removed  while  the 
concrete  is  being  placed  below  it. 

Sometimes  it  is  best  to  make  two  small  holes  into  the  cavity 
instead  of  one  large  one,  Fig.  22,  but  this  makes  it  more  difficult 
to  remove  all  of  the  decay.  The  growing  part  of  a  tree,  properly 
reinforced  as  above  described,  will  in  a  few  years  time  com- 
pletely grow  over  the  concrete  filling  so  that  it  cannot  be  seen. 


212 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


Fig.   1 


Swages 


Soldering  Iron 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 

As  a  preventative  of  much  annoyance  and  loss  of  time  when 
metal  parts  of  implements  or  machinery  break,  a  repair  shop 
where  metal  can  be  drilled  and  forged  is  most  valuable.  A 
building  or  room  12'xl8'  will  be  large  enough  for  both  a  wood 
work  and  metal  work  repair  shop. 

Most  all  machinery  is  made  of  iron  and  steel.  One  must 
be  able  to  tell  the  different  kinds  of  metal  apart  in  order  to  be 
able  to  secure  a  new  part  or  repair  the  old  one  when  it  is  broken. 
Most  every  one  knows  what  iron  is  but  few  know  the  difference 
between  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  and  steel.  The  chief  difference 
between  them  is  in  the  amount  of  a  certain  substance  called 
carbon  which  each  contains.  Wrought  iron  contains  about  .04%, 
cast  iron  about  3.5%  and  steel  about  1%.  The  more  carbon 
the  metal  contains,  the  more  easily  it  may  be  broken,  therefore 
cast  iron  the  least  desirable  for  any  project  requiring  strength. 
Wrought  iron  is  the  most  desirable  where  flexibility  and  tough- 
ness are  needed,  and  steel  where  hardness  and  keen  edges  are 
desired.  Bases  or  brackets  of  tools,  implements,  stoves,  small 
iron  pumps,  etc.,  are  made  of  cast  iron ;  horse  shoes,  wagon 
braces,  andirons  and  window  grilles  are  made  of  wrought  iron, 
and  tools,  springs,  and  parts  of  machines  subjected  to  great 
strain,  are  made  of  steel. 

Cast  iron  will  not  bend  because  it  is  of  a  crystalline  forma- 
tion. Wrought  iron  bends  easily  and  steel  will  bend  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  The  more  carbon  the  metal  contains,  the  less 
it  will  bend. 

The  repairing  of  cast  iron  is  too  difficult  for  a  novice  but 
many  interesting  experiments,  as  well  as  practical  problems,  can 
be  undertaken  in  wrought  iron  and  steel. 


PROJECTS  IN  METAL  WORK 


213 


Hearth 


Sody 


horn 


Anvil 


The  work  in  metal  can  be  divided  into  the  following  groups 
of  operations : 


1.     Bending. 


2.     Drilling. 


3.     Joining, 


Cold 

Hot 
Steel 

Iron 

Riveting 

Bolting 

Welding 

Soldering 


4.  Threading 

5.  Tapping 

6.  Forging 

7.  Tempering 


The  equipment  needed  for  a  metal  repair  shop  should  con- 
sist of  a  forge,  anvil,  iron  vise,  drill  press,  taps  and  dies  and 
such  small  tools  as  hammers,  tongs,  swages,  fullers,  hack  saws, 
drill  bits,  wrenches,  etc.,  Fig.  1.  Some  metal  can  be  bent  to 
the  desired  shape  while  it  is  cold,  holes  drilled  in  it  and  parts 
fastened  together  with  bolts  and  nuts  or  rivets.  The  projects 
described  on  page  222  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  work. 

When  metal  is  too  thick  or  heavy  to  be  bent  cold,  it  should 
be  heated  red  hot  and  then  pounded  to  shape  over  an  anvil  or 
held  in  a  vise  and  bent  to  shape.  This  heating  can  best  be  done 
in  a  forge,  Fig.  2,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  fire  built 
upon  it  can  be  fanned  from  a  draft,  from  a  bellows  or  a  blower, 
thus  producing  a  hotter  flame.  If  used  in  doors,  the  hood  on  the 
forge  should  be  connected  with  a  chimney  to  carry  off  the  smoke. 
Both  soft  coal  and  coke  are  used  in  forging.  Coke  gives  a  hot- 
ter fire  than  soft  coal  and  does  not  give  off  the  obnoxious  gases 
which  come  from  coal.  Coke  is  made  by  driving  the  volatile 
gases  out  of  soft  coal  and  leaving  only  the  carbon  and  ashes. 


214 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


Post -U  Drill 


Fig.  5 


Bench  Drill 


V/ae 


Combination  Vise 


Coke  is  made  commercially  by  driving  these  gases  from  the  coal 
in  large  iron  retorts  from  which  the  air  is  excluded.  The  gases 
which  are  driven  off  are  purified  and  made  into  illuminating  gas. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  a  hard  surface  over  which  to  pound 
and  shape  the  metal.  A  good  anvil  serves  this  purpose.  It  has 
a  flat  surface  on  which  heavy  pounding  is  done,  and  a  horn  or 
rounded  end  on  which  curved  bending  can  be  done.  There  are 
three  types  of  anvils :  the  cast  iron  anvil  used  for  light  work, 
an  anvil  with  a  cast  iron  body  and  a  steel  face  and  horn  welded 
to  it,  Fig.  3,  and  the  all  steel  anvil.  The  cast  iron  anvil  with 
a  steel  face  is  very  satisfactory  and  costs  considerably  less  than 
the  all  steel  anvil.  Anvils  are  sold  by  weight.  One  weighing 
from  seventy  to  one  hundred  pounds  is  a  good  size  for  light  re- 
pair work.  It  should  be  fastened  to  a  heavy  block  of  wood  and 
set  within  reach  of  the  forge  with  the  horn  pointed  to  the  work- 
man's right.  There  is  a  square  hole  in  the  heel  of  the  anvil  to 
hold  such  tools  as  the  hardie,  the  fuller  and  the  swage. 

To  heat  the  iron  for  bending,  a  good  fire  should  be  made 
on  the  forge  and  the  iron  placed  in  it.  In  starting  a  fire,  all 
the  clinkers  and  ashes  should  be  removed  from  the  hearth  and 
shavings  and  kindling  placed  over  the  tuyere  in  the  hearth.  This 
material  is  then  lighted  and  coal  or  coke  placed  over  it  and  a 
slight  current  of  air  from  the  bellows  or  blower  used  to  make 
the  fire  burn  more  quickly.  If  coke  is  not  available,  it  can  be 
made  by  placing  wet,  green  coal  over  the  fire.  The  fire  may  be 
kept  for  some  time  when  the  forge  is  not  in  use,  by  banking  it 
with  wet  coal. 

Once  a  good  fire  is  made,  that  part  of  the  iron  which  is  to 
be  bent  is  placed  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire,  with  plenty  of 
coke  on  top  of  it.  When  it  has  reached  a  bright  red  heat,  it 
should  be  taken  out  and  held  over  the  anvil  and  pounded  into 
shape.  It  is  necessary  to  act  quickly,  while  the  iron  is  hot,  as 
the  anvil  cools  the  iron  rapidly.  If  the  iron  becomes  too  cool 
before  the  desired  shape  is  developed,  it  should  be  carefully 


RIVETING 


215 


Fig-  7 


Anv/k 


Drfll- 


studied  to  see  wherein  it  is  incorrect  and  where  the  blows  should 
be  applied  to  force  it  into  shape.  Only  experience  and  practice 
will  tell  one  where  to  strike  the  metal  or  how  to  hold  it  over  the 
anvil  to  make  it  come  to  any  certain  shape.  If  this  is  thought 
out  before  the  iron  is  placed  back  in  the  fire,  it  will  be  possible 
to  begin  pounding  it  immediately  after  it  is  taken  out  of  the 
forge.  The  iron  should  not  be  heated  any  more  frequently  than 
is  absolutely  necessary,  as  each  time  tends  to  burn  away  the 
metal.  Trying  to  shape  metal  which  is  not  hot  enough  will 
result  in  breaking  or  cracking  it.  Overheating  will  burn  the 
metal  and  destroy  its  shape. 

Many  broken  articles  may  be  mended  by  boring  holes 
through  a  strip  of  iron  and  also  through  points  correspondingly 
placed  in  both  parts  of  the  broken  article,  and  bolting  this  strip 
of  iron  securely  across  the  break.  While  a  hand  drill  such  as  is 
shown  on  page  21  can  be  used  for  light  work,  a  drill  press  is  a 
very  desirable  tool  for  a  general  repair  shop.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  drills,  the  vertical,  Fig.  4,  and  the  horizontal,  Fig.  5. 
A  vertical  drill  press  should  be  mounted  on  a  solid  post  in  the 
shop.  When  boring  holes  in  wrought  iron  and  soft  steel,  oil 
should  be  used  on  the  drill  point  to  prevent  the  drill  from  over- 
heating and  destroying  its  cutting  edge.  The  temper  of  a  piece 
of  steel  must  be  removed  before  attempting  to  drill  through  it 
since  it  is  practically  as  hard  as  the  drill.  A  starting  point  for 
the  drill  should  always  be  made  with  a  center  punch,  so  that  the 
drill  will  center. 

A  shop  should  be  equipped  with  a  vise  with  wrought  steel 
jaws  which  will  permit  the  hammering  necessary  to  bend  and 
shape  iron.  A  combination  vise,  anvil  and  pipe  vise,  Fig.  6,  is 
a  desirable  tool  for  a  small  repair  shop  and  is  especially  well 
suited  to  the  automobile  owner  or  one  who  repairs  his  own 
plumbing. 

A  combination  drill,  vise  and  anvil,  Fig.  7,  can  also  be  ob- 


216 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


-sunk 


Fig.  8 


jaw 


Fig.  9 


7    \    I        A  '   ;         :   • 

r  fi'"^    w~v^/ 

Plain  Washe/^Lock  Washer 


tained  and  will  give  very  satisfactory  service  in  a  repair  shop 
where  only  light  work  is  attempted. 

One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  joining  metals  together  per- 
manently is  by  riveting  them.  After  the  pieces  have  been  prop- 
erly shaped,  holes  are  drilled  through  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  if 
possible,  holding  the  two  pieces  together  in  the  vise  while  the 
holes  are  being  made.  Rivets  which  fit  the  holes  are  selected. 
They  must  be  of  sufficient  length  to  protrude  some  distance 
through  the  holes,  thus  allowing  sufficient  metal  to  form  a  head. 
Rivets  can  be  secured  with  flat  heads,  round  heads  or  sloping 
heads,  Fig.  8.  In  using  the  sloping  heads,  the  metal  must  be 
countersunk  to  allow  the  head  of  the  rivet  to  come  flush  with  the 
surface.  The  rivets  are  headed  over  with  the  ball  "pien"  (end) 
of  the  hammer,  the  first  blow  being  struck  squarely  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  rivet  to  spread  it  as  at  A-Fig.  9,  and  the  remaining 
blows  directed  to  shape  it  as  at  B.  and  C.,  Fig.  9.  In  case  a 
smooth  finished,  round  head  is  desired  on  both  ends  of  the  rivet, 
a  riveting  tool,  D-Fig.  9,  is  placed  over  the  end  of  the  rivet  and 
several  sharp  blows  driven  against  it  with  the  hammer,  D-Fig.  9. 
In  case  round  head  rivets  are  used,  a  riveting  tool  of  the  correct 
size  should  be  held  in  the  vise  and  the  under  side  of  the  work 
held  upon  it,  D-Fig.  9.  Small  rivets  can  be  shaped  cold  but 
large  rivets  such  as  are  used  in  structural  iron  work  and  boilers, 
must  be  headed  over  while  they  are  hot. 

Bolts  are  used  in  fastening  parts  together  where  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  be  able  to  take  the  pieces  apart.  Twisting 
the  nut  on  a  bolt  has  a  tendency  to  cut  into  or  mar  the  surface 
of  the  material  being  bolted.  A  washer,  placed  underneath  the 


WELDING 


217 


Zdge  Weld 


Corner    l/l/z/d 


Fig.  13 


nut,  will  overcome  this.  Since  the  bolts  have  a  tendency  to 
work  loose,  they  should  be  held  on  in  some  way.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  lock  washer,  B-Fig.  10,  a  washer 
which  is  split  and  has  enough  spring  in  it  that  it  constantly 
pushes  the  nut  tight  against  the  threads,  or  it  may  be  held  in 
place  with  a  cotter  pin,  placed  through  a  hole  drilled  in  the 
threaded  end  of  the  bolt  and  through  the  slots  in  the  top  of  a 
castle  nut,  C-Fig.  10.  The  ends  of  the  cotter  pin  should  be  spread 
apart  to  prevent  it  from  slipping  out. 

The  most  permanent  way  of  joining  metal  together  is  by 
welding.  Welding  consists  of  bringing  two  properly  shaped 
pieces  of  iron  or  steel  together  while  they  are  at  the  fusing 
point,  known  as  a  "weld  heat,"  and  pounding  them  together. 
If  properly  done,  from  all  outward  appearances,  and  from  the 
standpoint  of  strength,  the  two  parts  are  made  into  one.  Not 
all  kinds  of  metal  can  be  welded  together,  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  will  only  join  when  at  "weld  heat."  Some  metals  become 
softer  gradually  as  the  temperature  is  increased,  while  others 
retain  the  same  firmness  for  a  long  period  and  then  suddenly 
collapse  or  melt.  Cast  iron  is  in  this  latter  class  and  cannot  be 
welded  in  a  forge,  while  wrought  iron  is  very  ductile  and  can  be 
heated  many  times  and  pounded  into  intricate  shapes. 

In  welding  two  pieces  together,  they  must  first  be  properly 
shaped.  If  it  is  desired  that  the  joint  should  not  show,  the 
pieces  should  be  "scarfed,"  that  is,  so  shaped  that  when  they 
are  joined,  the  total  thickness  of  the  two  parts  will  equal  the 
original  thickness  of  the  metal.  To  prepare  a  scarf,  the  two 
pieces  to  be  joined  must  first  be  "upset,"  that  is,  made  thicker 


218  METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 

at  the  place  to  be  scarfed.  This  is  done  by  heating  the  iron  at 
that  point  only  and  pounding  on  the  end  of  it  as  at  A-Fig.  12. 
This  increases  the  thickness  of  the  iron  at  that  point.  It  is  then 
squared  and  scarled.  When  the  scarf  is  made  the  metal  is 
stretched  back  to  its  original  length.  Figs.  11  and  13  show  the 
various  steps  in  making  a  weld.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the 
scarf  be  shaped  so  that  it  is  higher  in  the  center,  in  order  that 
the  two  surfaces,  when  pounded  together,  will  force  the  particles 
of  scale  or  iron  oxide,  out  of  the  joint  and  permit  the  metal  to 
unite,  while  if  hollow  shaped  in  the  center,  these  particles  will 
be  held  in  and  the  metal  will  not  hold. 

In  welding  two  pieces  of  iron  or  soft  steel  together,  the  por- 
tions to  be  welded  should  be  heated  slowly  so  that  they  will  be 
heated  entirely  through  the  pieces  and  not  merely  on  the  surface. 
If  too  much  air  is  forced  through  the  fire  after  the  iron  becomes 
red  hot,  scales  will  form  on  the  outside  of  the  iron  and  prevent 
a  good  weld.  These  scales  are  formed  by  the  excess  amount  of 
oxygen  in  the  air  uniting  with  the  iron,  forming  a  substance 
called  iron  oxide.  If  the  iron  is  heated  too  hot  and  too  long,  it 
will  all  burn  in  this  way  and  will  be  worthless.  A  good  weld 
heat  has  been  reached  when  small,  white  sparks  begin  to  fly  off  , 
the  metal.  The  sparks  are  small  particles  of  metal  melting. 
After  a  weld  has  been  securely  made  the  piece  may  be  reheated 
if  it  has  cooled  too  much,  and  hammered  into  the  proper  shape. 

The  most  permanent  way  to  fasten  tin,  brass  or  copper  to- 
gether, is  by  soldering.  In  soldering  a  joint  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  two  parts  overlap  since  the  solder  itself  possesses  very 
little  strength.  It  acts  on  metal  much  the  same  as  glue  acts 
on  wood. 

Solder  is  composed  chiefly  of  lead  and  tin  and  it  melts  at 
a  very  low  temperature.  Soldering  is  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  a  soldering  iron  made  of  a  heavy  copper  bar  held  in  an  iron 
and  wood  handle,  Fig.  1.  It  is  prepared  for  use  by  heating  the 
copper  part  to  a  sizzling  heat,  dipping  the  tip  into  soldering  solu- 
tion and  while  it  is  still  hot,  touching  it  to  a  bar  of  solder.  Upon 
coming  in  contact  with  the  hot  soldering  iron,  the  solder  will 
spread  over  the  point  of  the  copper  bar.  By  rubbing  it  upon  a 
clean  rag,  part  of  the  solder  is  removed,  but  enough  remains  to 
"tin"  the  iron.  The  soldering  solution  is  composed  of  muriatic 
acid  and  zinc. 

The  parts  to  be  soldered  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  so 
that  no  grease  or  rust  is  present.  This  is  especially  true  of  old 
work.  Unless  all  the  dirt,  rust  and  grease  are  removed,  the 
solder  will  not  adhere.  The  surfaces  are  best  cleaned  by  scrap- 
ing them  with  an  old  knife  or  a  file  until  the  metal  appears 


SOLDERING  219 

bright.  The  edges  of  the  joint  are  painted  with  the  soldering 
solution.  Since  the  muriatic  acid  out  of  which  the  soldering 
solution  is  made,  would  burn  or  eat  holes  in  cloth,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  splash  any  of  the  solution  on  the  clothing.  When 
the  metal  has  been  cleaned  and  the  iron  heated  and  tinned,  the 
iron  is  again  touched  to  the  solder.  If  it  is  of  the  right  heat,  the 
solder  will  melt  and  remain  on  the  iron  but  if  it  is  too  hot  it 
will  melt  and  run  off  the  iron.  If  too  cold  the  solder  will  not 
melt.  While  the  two  parts  being  soldered  are  held  tightly  to- 
gether, the  point  of  the  charged  soldering  iron  is  dragged  slowly 
along  the  joint.  As  soon  as  the  iron  warms  the  metal  the  solder 
will  flow  off  the  iron  and  into  the  joint,  cementing  it  together. 
The  soldered  joint  should  be  smooth.  If  it  appears  rough,  the 
iron,  when  used  was  not  hot  enough. 

Many  leaky  buckets,  wash  boilers,  tea  kettles,  etc.,  can  be 
repaired  by  soldering  the  hole  or  leaky  joint. 

Rods  are  held  together  or  held  in  other  parts  of  metal  with 
threaded  nuts.  A  rod  is  threaded  with  a  die,  Fig.  14,  which  cuts 
threads  to  fit  those  made  in  the  nut  with  the  tap,  Fig.  15.  This 
tap  and  die  are  held  in  stocks,  Fig.  17.  In  threading  a  rod,  a 
die  of  the  right  diameter  and  with  the  correct  number  of  thread 
cutters  to  the  inch,  must  be  selected.  These  cutters  in  the  die 
must  also  have  the  proper  shape  to  match  those  in  the  nut  to 
be  used.  There  are  several  kinds  of  threads,  the  most  commonly 
used  ones  being  known  .as  United  States  Standard  and  V  shape. 

The  end  of  the  rod  to  be  threaded  must  be  slightly  beveled 
with  a  file  in  order  to  allow  the  die  to  start  onto  it.  The  rod 
must  be  held  firmly  in  a  vise  and  the  stock  which  holds  the  die, 
gripped  firmly  in  the  hands.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
when  the  die  starts  to  cut,  its  broad  face  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  side  of  the  rod,  otherwise  the  threads  will  cut  crooked. 
Once  the  die  is  started,  it  should  be  oiled  frequently  to  keep  it 
from  breaking  as  it  is  forced  on  the  rod.  After  several  turns 
have  been  made,  the  stock  is  given  a  reverse  turn  to  allow  the 
cutters  to  throw  out  the  metal  chips  and  allow  the  oil  to  lubri- 
cate the  cutters. 

.  In  tapping  out  a  nut  or  in  threading  a  hole  in  a  metal  plate 
so  that  a  rod  may  be  screwed  into  it,  a  hole  slightly  smaller  than 
the  rod,  Fig.  16  must  be  bored  in  the  nut  or  plate.  The  nut  or 
plate  should  be  held  rigidly  in  a  vise  and  the  tap  turned  into  it. 
The  tap  tapers  so  that  it  starts  into  the  hole  easily.  The  first 
cutters  are  small  and  they  become  larger  as  they  near  the  shank. 
This  makes  the  tap  cut  the  threads  gradually.  The  hole  must 
be  tapped  square  with  the  broad  face,  otherwise  the  rod  will 


220 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


Die 


Fig.  14 


A- 

B 


Fig.  15 


Rodsize 


D/'e&'ze 


•Drillsiie 


Fig.  16 


A  -  Size  at  root  of  thread        B  -  Number  of  threads  to  the  inch       C  -Kind  of  thread 


not  enter.  The  sizes  of  dies  and  taps  and  also  the  kind  of 
threads  each  will  cut,  is  stamped  on  them,  Figs.  14  and  15. 

The  more  metal  is  worked,  that  is,  the  more  it  is  heated 
and  pounded,  the  tougher  and  harder  it  becomes.  Tools  made 
of  cast  metal  (metal  melted  and  poured  into  a  mould)  break  eas- 
ily while  forged  tools  (tools  shaped  by  heating  and  pounding) 
are  strong  and  durable. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  metal  which  is  being  forged  be 
worked  at  the  right  temperature  or  heat.  Overheating  will  draw 
the  temper  of  metal  and  burn  it  away,  while  if  pounded  into 
shape  when  it  is  too  cold,  the  metal  will  crack  or  break.  The 
best  heat  for  forging  is  midway  between  a  red  heat  and  a  weld 
heat.  The  more  metal  is  pounded  after  it  is  heated,  the  more 
brittle  it  becomes.  Tools  such  as  knjves,  chisels  and  screw 
drivers,  must  have  their  edges  "tempered,"  to  suit  the  kind  of 
work  each  is  to  perform;  for  example,  the  screw  driver  does  not 
need  to  be  hard  enough  to  hold  a  cutting  edge  as  does  the  chisel, 
but  it  must  be  tough  enough  to  stand  the  strain  of  twisting  in 
screws  without  chipping  away  and  it  must  be  hard  enough  to 
keep  from  bending  out  of  shape. 

Wrought  iron  cannot  be  tempered,  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
contains  such  a  low  per  cent  of  carbon,  but  tool  steel,  when 
heated  to  a  cherry  red  and  plunged  into  cold  water,  becomes 
very  hard.  If  allowed  to  cool  slowly  it  becomes  soft.  Between 
these  two  extremes  it  is  possible  to  obtain  the  proper  degree  of 
hardness  to  suit  the  need  of  the  tool  being  tempered.  This  de- 
gree of  temper,  in  a  tool  is  regulated  by  hardening  it  as  above 
stated  and  then  drawing  away  some  of  the  hardness,  leaving  the 
tool  with  the  proper  amount.  This  is  accomplished  by  polish- 
ing with  a  bit  of  emery  paper  or  cloth,  those  parts  which  must 
be  brought  to  any  certain  degree  of  hardness.  The  tool  back  of 
the  edge  or  part  requiring  the  special  temper  is  heated  slowly 
and  by  carefully  watching  that  part  which  has  been  polished 
bright,  a  change  in  the  color  will  be  noted.  It  will  first  turn  a 


THREADING  221 


Die  Stock 


tfandk  ^et  screw  ho/ding 

<//e  /n  stock 


Fig-  17 


straw  color,  then  purple,  then  blue.  These  colors  would  mean 
nothing  if  the  metal  had  not  previously  been  hardened,  but  since 
the  metal  has  been  hardened,  these  colors  indicate  that,  as  the 
color  changes  from  straw  to  black,  the  metal  is  becoming  softer. 
When  the  proper  color  is  reached,  the  tool  is  quickly  plunged 
into  cold  water,  or,  in  the  case  of  fine  edged  tools,  into  oil.  This 
drawing  hardened  steel  down  to  any  one  of  the  colors  mentioned 
is  called  "tempering."  The  following  table  shows  the  color  to 
which  various  kinds  of  tools  should  be  tempered. 

Light  Straw Hammer  faces,  paper  cutters,  metal  lathe  and 

planer  tools. 
Medium   Straw  ....Wood  working  edge  tools,  taps,  dies,  razors, 

lathe  and  planer  tools. 

Dark   Straw Large  drills. 

Brown  Small  drills,  saws  for  metal,  wood  chisels. 

Purple .Cold  chisels,  awls,  wood  boring  bits,  needles, 

axes,  hatchets,  vise  jaws,  scissor  blades,  wire 

cutters. 

Dark  Blue Saws  for  wood,  springs. 

Light    Blue Blacksmith's  punches,  light  springs. 

Gray   Too  soft  to  hold  an  edge. 

Black No  temper. 

METAL  WORK  PROJECTS 

As  in  the  case  of  wood  working  projects,  many  metal  work- 
ing projects  involve  like  fundamental  processes,  therefore  de- 
tails concerning  processes  have  been  set  forth  on  the  preceding 
ages  and  only  working  specifications  have  been  given  for  the 
olio  wing  suggested  projects. 


I 


222 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


Angle  Irons 


Bracket 


Racket  or  Tub  Hoop 


Reirjforc/ng  Plate 


COLD  BENDING 

Drilling 
Riveting 

Angle  Irons.  Metal  of  the  desired  thickness  and  width  is 
cut  to  length,  ends  filed  square  and  smooth,  holes  for  screws 
drilled  and  countersunk,  and  metal  bent  to  shape. 

Braces.  Same  as  for  angle  irons.  If  twisted  brace  is  used, 
twist  is  made  last. 

Brackets.  The  metal  for  brackets  after  being  cut  to  size,  is 
folded,  the  holes  for  the  rivets  bored  in  the  brace  piece,  the 
piece  held  in  position  and  points  for  holes  in  outside  strip  lo- 
cated. These  holes  are  then  bored  and  the  two  pieces  riveted 
together. 

Hoops.  Size  obtained  by  measuring  around  tub  or  bucket 
with  a  string  allowing  enough  extra  for  over  lap  (to  hold  two 
rivets)  metal  bent  to  shape,  one  hole  bored  through  both  pieces, 
rivet  placed  and  headed  over,  size  tested,  second  hole  made  and 
rivet  placed. 


PROJECTS 


223 


Wagon  Bed  Stake  Iron 


I  I 


SacA  Holder 


Detail  I 


£>ench  Trame 
Corner  Iron 


I'lP 


Lawn  Holler 
Handle  Irons 


HOT  BENDING 

Drilling 
Bolting 

Corner  Irons.  Metal  cut  to  length,  heated  at  bending  point, 
V  shaped  wedge  cut  out,  iron  bent  to  shape^over  anvil,  holes  for 
screws  drilled  and  countersunk.  Much  stronger  corner  irons 
are  made  by  welding  the  seam. 

Wagon  Bed  Irons.  Iron  heated  at  bending  point,  shaped 
over  anvil  and  holes  made  for  screws. 

Work  Bench  Frame.  Made  of  angle  iron,  sawed  to  proper 
length,  ends  filed  smooth,  heated  and  crimped  at  bending  points, 
reheated  and  bent  to  shape,  holes  for  bolts  drilled  and  all  parts 
bolted  together. 

Lawn  Roller  Handle  Irons.  Two  pieces  of  metal  cut  to 
length,  heated  and  shaped,  holes  for  bolts  and  rods  drilled. 


224 


METAL  WORK  AND  FORGING 


fafogo/?  End  Gate  Rod 


Porch  Sw/nqftooA 


L  ong  &o/t 


left  hand  thread     Toy  Wagon    Axle  night  hand  ihreod 


SquareNut     Hexooonal  Castle  Nut 
Bar  Nut  /yut 


Metal  Plate 


THREADING 

Wagon  End-Gate  Rod.  Rod  held  in  vise  and  threaded.  If 
castle  nut  and  cotter  pin  are  to  be  used,  a  hole  drilled  near  end 
of  rod. 

Long  Bolt.  \ 

Toy  Wagon  Axle.     KSame  as  for  wagon  end-gate  rod. 

Ring  Bolt. 

TAPPING 

Square  Nut.  Nut  held  in  vise  and  threaded  with  a  tap  of 
the  right  number  and  shaped  threads. 

Hexagonal  Nut.     \ 

Castle  Nut.  ^Same  as  for  square  nut. 

Bar  Nut. 


PROJECTS  225 


HeU 


L 


Toot  Scraper  Porch  3w;    ^^ 


Toy  Wagon  Axle  ftinq 

Gote  p/ece 


@s 


Bar  Nut  > 


n    fir5 1  R">?iiz°'t~ 

II      11 il  wffiMHori 


Gate  End  Rod 


FORGING  AND  WELDING 

Foot  Scraper.  Metal  cut  size,  side  pieces  upset  at  welding 
point,  cross  bar  upset  on  end,  ends  of  cross  bar  scarfed,  side 
pieces  scarfed,  all  parts  welded  and  shaped  and  lower  ends  bent. 

Porch  Swing  Hooks.     Metal  heated  and  forged  to  shape. 

Wagon  Axle.  Square  stock  cut  to  length,  dimensions  for 
round  ends  laid  off  and  marked  with  cold  chisel,  ends  heated 
and  forged  round  and  then  filed  smooth  and  true. 

End-Gate  Rod.  Round  rod  cut  to  length  (making  sufficient 
allowance  for  loop),  upset  on  end  and  at  welding  point,  scarfs 
made  at  both  points,  ring  bent  to  shape  and  welded. 

Ring  Bolt.     Same  as  for  end-gate  rod. 

Bar  Nut.  Piece  of  round  stock  heavily  upset  (extra  length 
should  be  allowed  for  this),  shaped  round  in  one  direction,  flat 
in  the  other,  hole  drilled  for  tap  and  small  end  filed  smooth. 

Gate  Hinge.  Post  Bar — Gate  end,  (the  end  which  will  be 
placed  nearest  the  gate)  upset,  holes  drilled,  round  rod  inserted 
and  welded,  post  end  pointed.  Gate  Piece — Strap  of  iron  bent 
around  mandrel,  (slightly  smaller  than  size  of  post  bar  pin) 
welded,  holes  drilled  for  screws  and  also  for  post  bar  pin. 


226 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 

PAPER 

Of  the  many  large  industries  in  this  country  that  of  paper 
making  and  printing  probably  ranks  about  sixth.  Everyone  in 
the  civilized  world  has  more  or  less  to  do  with  paper  in  some 
form  or  other  and  the  art  of  printing  is  ever  before  us  in  the 
newspapers,  magazines  and  books  and  in  the  advertising  circular 
and  poster.  In  spite  of  this  fact  the  majority  of  people  know 
little  or  nothing  concerning  these  subjects  which  form  so  vital 
a  part  of  our  daily  experience.  Imagine,  if  you  can,  the  elimina- 
tion from  the  world  ,of  paper  and  typography — as  the  art  of 
printing  with  type  is  called.  It  would  seem  to  be  impossible 
to  get  along  without  them. 

It  is  believed  that  the  first  paper  was  made  in  Egypt  from 
the  papyrus  plant.  This  plant  grows  in  shallow  water.  When 
it  is  broken  off  or  whipped  by  the  wind  so  that  it  falls  into  the 
water  it  soon  becomes  soft.  The  motion  of  the  water  so  beats 
it  that  it  disintegrates  and  a  fine,  fibrous  substance  from  it  floats 
about  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  this  becomes  engaged 
in  the  grasses  it  piles  up  layer  on  layer  and  the  result  is  a  crude 
paper.  This  fibrous  substance  is  nothing  more  than  cellulose 
and  the  paper  made  in  this  accidental  way  is  much  like  the  paper 
made  today  by  machinery.  It  is  believed  that  the  discovery 
of  this  papyrus  product  was  responsible  for  present  day  products 
and  also  for  the  name  paper. 

Fifty  years  ago  paper  was  made  almost  wholly  of  rags,  but 
today  the  greater  part  of  our  paper  is  made  from  wood  pulp. 
Chemically,  the  substance  obtained  from  wood  pulp  is  about 
the  same  as  that  obtained  from  rags,  but  it  took  a  great  many 
years  of  experience  to  discover  the  fact  that  it  was  possible  to 
secure  that  substance  from  certain  kinds  of  growing  plants. 

The  fiber  out  of  which  paper  is  made  is  not  manufactured 
as  is  sometimes  supposed.  It  is  merely  separated  from  other 
materials  and  formed  into  sheets.  This  is  the  fibrous  material 
known  as  cellulose  and  is  found  in  all  sorts  of  plants  in  greater  or 
less  quantities,  perhaps  more  in  cotton  and  flax  than  in  any 
others.  This  accounts  for  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  rags  in 
making  paper  for  so  many  years. 

Some  fibers  of  cellulose  are  longer  than  others  and  of  course 
the  longer  the  fiber  the  stronger  and  tougher  the  paper  produced 
from  it.  Flax,  from  which  linen  is  made,  has  the  longest  fiber, 
therefore  paper  made  from  linen  rags  is  very  much  harder  and 
tougher  than  that  made  from  any  other  substance.  For  this 


PAPER  227 

reason  all  of  the  best  papers  used  for  writing  papers  are  made 
of  linen  rags. 

The  fibers  which  go  to  make  up  paper  are  so  very  fine  that 
one  can  hardly  realize  that  paper  is  composed  of  them,  but  by 
tearing  a  sheet  of  paper  and  examining  the  edge  keenly,  these 
minute,  hair-like  pieces  of  cellulose  can  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye.  Paper  has  grain  the  same  as  does  wood,  due  to  the  fact 
that  during  the  process  of  paper  making  the  fibers  of  which  the 
paper  is  composed  are  laid  out  on  moving  belts  and  naturally 
arrange  themselves  in  a  lengthwise  direction  on  the  belt.  The 
direction  of  the  grain  can  be  discovered  by  tearing  the  sheet  in 
two  directions.  It  tears  easily  and  in  a  straight  line  in  one 
direction  (with  the  grain)  while  in  the  other  the  line  is  more 
irregular  and  the  paper  harder  to  tear. 

A  boll  of  a  cotton  plant  (the  seed  pod)  contains  a  greater 
per  cent  of  cellulose  than  any  other  growing  plant.  The  cellu- 
lose is  more  easily  separated  from  the  foreign  matter  in  this 
plant  than  in  any  other.  Cloth  made  from  cotton  has  already 
had  much  of  the  foreign  material  removed  and  for  that  reason 
it  takes  less  machinery  and  less  work  to  transform  cotton  rags 
into  paper.  If  one  should  take  a  small  quantity  of  cotton  or 
linen  rags,  cut  them  up  into  very  small  bits  arid  boil  them  for 
several  hours  in  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  water,  fre- 
quently stirring  them  vigorously,  then  pour  a  portion  of  the 
substance  thus  produced  into  a  sieve  or  fine  mesh  which  is  kept 
in  constant  motion,  he  would  produce  a  sheet  of  paper  almost 
identical  with  the  rough  stock  made  in  some  of  the  paper  mills 
today.  The  fibers  in  the  cellulose  become  so  interwoven  as  the 
water  is  drained  through  that  they  make  a  fine,  web-like  sub- 
stance. By  pressing  this  sheet  of  pulp  with  a  fairly  hot  iron, 
the  surface  might  be  smoothed  down  and  the  sheet  would  take 
on  the  texture  of  the  paper  made  in  a  mill. 

Paper  is  made  in  the  mills  by  exactly  such  a  process  as  here 
described  but  of  course  on  a  very  large  scale,  never  less  than 
two  thousand  pounds  in  one  batch  but  frequently  many  batches 
are  made  at  the  same  time. 

The  greatest  supply  of  cellulose  which  goes  into  the  making 
of  paper  is  obtained  from  the  trunk  of  the  spruce  tree.  When 
made  from  trees  it  is  called  wood  pulp. 

Practically  all  of  the  paper  used  today  in  books,  magazines, 
advertising  circulars  and  newspapers  is  made  of  wood  pulp. 
Some  idea  of  the  enormous  amount  of  raw  material  which  it 
takes  to  supply  the  world  with  paper  can  be  gained  from  the 
fact  that  it  requires  about  seventy-six  acres  of  spruce  forest  to 
make  the  paper  for  a  single  Easter  edition  of  a  New  York  paper. 

While  in  the  experiment  suggested,  nothing  but  cellulose 


228  PAPER  AND  PRINTING 

was  allowed  to  enter  into  the  paper,  some  commercially  made 
paper  contains  other  material,  sometimes  a  pigment  to  color  it, 
sometimes  a  glue  like  substance  to  give  it  a  slick  surface  and 
sometimes  clay  to  load  up  the  sheet  and  make  it  heavier.  The 
latter  is  particularly  true  of  cheap  paper,  but  in  the  best  paper 
only  the  pure  cellulose  is  used. 

The  cellulose,  obtained  from  one  source  or  another,  is  pre- 
pared (that  is,  separated  from  other  matter  which  would  be 
harmful  to  the  paper)  in  huge,  steam  jacketed  kettles,  where, 
by  the  aid  of  intense  heat  and  certain  chemicals,  the  cellulose 
is  formed  into  a  pulpy  substance. 

Wood  pulp  must  be  made  somewhat  differently  from  that 
made  of  other  materials,  because  the  cellulose  in  this  form  is 
harder  to  separate  from  the  foreign  matter.  The  trees  used  for 
wood  pulp  must  be  cut  down  in  the  early  summer  so  that  the 
bark,  which  contains  little  or  no  cellulose,  can  be  stripped  off 
easily.  The  tree  trunks  are  cut  into  two  and  three  foot  lengths 
and  sent  to  the  pulp  factory  where  they  are  chopped  up  into  bits 
no  larger  than  a  silver  dollar.  These  chips  are  put  into  huge 
kettles  and  cooked  in  the  same  way  as  the  rags  are,  but  a  dif- 
ferent chemical  is  used  to  destroy  the  foreign  matter.  This 
substance  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  and  bleached  in 
huge  beaters.  These  beaters  are  enormous  tubs  containing 
knives  and  paddles  which  revolve  very  rapidly  through  the  pulp, 
cutting  and  mixing  the  ingredients  very  thoroughly  with  the 
water  and  chloride  of  lime,  a  solution  which  purifies  and  bleaches 
it.  It  is  then  removed  fr.om  the  beater  and  as  it  is  carried  away 
it  is  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  bleaching 
solution.  The  water  is  then  drawn  off,  causing  the  fibers  to 
form  themselves  into  a  thick  blanket  of  pulp  which  may  be  stored 
away  for  future  use  in  making  paper.  When  needed  for  paper 
making,  these  blankets  of  pulp,  along  with  such  coloring  mat- 
ter, size,  etc.,  as  are  needed  to  complete  any  certain  formula,  are 
placed  in  a  "stuff  chest,"  a  huge  tub,  holding  about  three  times 
as  much  as  a  beater  holds.  In  the  stuff  chest  an  agitator  which 
resembles  the  paddles  in  an  ice  cream  freezer,  thoroughly  mixes 
the  contents.  The  mixture  is  then  drawn  off  and  about  98  per 
cent  of  clear  water  added  to  carry  it  to  the  "wet"  end  of  the 
paper  making  machine. 

The  Fourdrinier  paper  making  machine  is  one  of  the  best 
known  and  most  .complete  of  the  kind.  A  study  of  it  would  be 
intensely  interesting  if  space  would  permit.  Into  it  the  paper 
pulp,  2%  fiber,  98%  water,  is  fed  at  one  end  and  the  finished 
paper  taken  off  in  huge  rolls  at  the  other.  This  machine  is  about 
175  feet  long.  The  processes  performed  by  it  are  as  follows: 


PAPER  229 

From  the  tanks  into  which  it  is  first  put,  on  the  "wet"  end  of 
the  machine,  the  pulp  is  distributed  over  afi  endless  belt  of  fine 
brass  wire  screen.  The  water  is  drained  through  this  belt  and 
by  the  time  the  pulp  reaches  that  point  where  the  belt  turns 
back,  the  fibers  are  so  matted  together  that  they  can  be  pulled 
away  from  the  screen  in  a  thin  layer.  A  close  examination  of 
this  layer  of  paper,  especially  if  a  magnifying  glass  is  used,  will 
show  one  side  to  be  rough  and  irregular  while  the  other  side  is 
more  even  and  slightly  marked  with  little  cavities,  regularly  dis- 
tributed over  the  entire  surface.  These  little  cavities  resemble 
little  pin  pricks.  They  are  the  imprint  of  the  screen  or  belt. 
The  rougher  side  of  the  paper  is  considered  the  right  side, 
being  more  suitable  for  all  purposes. 

From  the  end  of  this  belt  the  layer  of  paper  passes  between 
a  series  of  felt  covered  rolls  which  squeeze  out  a  part  of  the 
moisture  and  from  there  it  passes  over  and  under  a  series  of 
large  steam  heated  rollers  or  drums.  This  dries  out  the  paper. 
If  it  is  to  be  a  machine  finished  paper,  it  finally  passes  under  a 
series  of  hot  rollers,  revolving  much  faster  than  it  is  passing. 
This  gives  it  a  reasonably  slick  surface  and  when  so  finished  it 
is  called  machine  finished  paper. 

If  an  extremely  smooth  surface  is  desired,  this  machine 
finished  paper  then  passes  to  the  calendering  section  of  the 
machine  where  certain  rollers,  revolving  in  pans  of  sizing,  come 
in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  paper,  applying  an  even  coat 
of  "size."  The  paper  then  passes  over  rapidly  revolving,  alter- 
nating iron  and  steel  rollers  which  give  it  an  extremely  smooth 
surface. 

The  paper  is  taken  off  of  the  machine  in  large  rolls.  As 
one  roll  is  completed  it  is  removed  by  a  simple  device  and  a  new 
roll  begun  without  stopping  the  machine.  The  machine  must 
be  thoroughly  and  accurately  adjusted  before  a  run  of  paper  is 
attempted,  for  once  the  run  is  started  it  must  continue  until  the 
batch  is  finished.  For  this  reason  paper  mills  run  continually, 
day  and  night,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  week. 

Some  paper  is  sofd  in  rolls  and  some  in  sheets.  The  sheets 
are  made  into  packages,  a  ream  to  a  package.  A  ream  consists 
of  500  sheets  of  most  kinds  of  paper.  Writing  paper,  however, 
always  comes  480  sheets  to  the  ream. 

The  different  kinds  of  paper  made  and  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  put  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  chart. 


230 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 
PAPER 


Kind  Description 

Print   Made    of   wood    pulp    and 

used  paper. 

Machine    Finished      Wood  pulp,   surface 
Book    (M.F.Book)smooth. 


Antique   Book Wood      pulp, 

'surface. 


unfinished 


Sized   and    Super       Same  as  M.   F.   Book  but 
Calendered  heavily    sized    and    calen- 

(S.   &  S.  C.) dered. 

Enamel  Same  as  M.  F.  Book,  coat- 
ed with  casein,  glue  and 
china  clay. 

Bond     Cheaper  grades,  part  pulp. 

Better  grades,  rags  only. 
Best  grades,  linen  rags. 

Ledger    Heavier  than  Bond,  made 

of    linen    rags. 

Cover    Made  of  cotton,  jute  and 

hemp. 

Index    Bristol Same  as  Ledger  but  very 

much  heavier. 

Ply   Board Two    or    more    sheets    of 

paper   glued   together. 
Cheap, grade,  wood  pulp. 
Better     grade,     rags     and 
wood  pulp. 
Best  grade,  rags  only. 

Flat   Writing Three  grades  same  as  ply 

board. 


Straw    Board Made  of  straw  pulp. 

Tag   Board Made  of  jute. 

Blotting   Made  of  pure  cotton. 


Use 

Newspapers,    cheap 
posters,  hand  bills. 

Book  pages,  circulars, 
advertising  folders,  bill 
heads. 

Book  pages,  circulars, 
advertising  folders,  bill 
heads,  drawing  paper. 

Book  pages,  circulars, 
advertising  folders,  bill 
heads,  color  prints. 

Book  pages,  circulars, 
advertising  folders, 
color  prints. 

Writing  paper,  type- 
writer paper,  blank 
books. 

Book  keeping  books, 
record  books,  diplomas. 

Covers  for  books  and 
boxes,  tickets,  posters. 

Index  cards,  record 
cards. 

Posters,   tickets,  boxes. 


Ruled  stationery,  legal 
forms,  blanks,  envel- 
opes. 

Foundations  for  book 
covers,  boxes  and 
mounting  boards. 

Tags,  large  envelopes, 
index  files. 

Blotters. 


231 

PRINTING 

Printing  with  movable  type  dates  back  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  first  movable  type  was  made  of  wood  and  it  was 
indeed  a  crude  product  as  compared  to  the  beautiful  type  faces 
of  today.  When  printing  was  in  the  early  stages,  the  type  was 
set  up  and  inked,  the  paper  laid  upon  it,  pressure  applied,  and 
the  paper  bearing  the  imprint  of  the  type  pulled  off.  It  is  hard 
to  conceive  of  the  development  from  that  crude  form  of  print- 
ing to  the  present  day  cylinder  press  which  can  print  forty-eight 
full  pages  of  a  newspaper  at  one  time,  and  not  alone  print,  but 
cut,  fold  and  assemble  the  same.  Seemingly  this  monstrous 
printing  machine,  called  a  web  cylinder  press,  needs  very  little 
attention,  but,  while  it  does  not  take  any  great  number  of  men 
to  operate  it,  it  must  be  carefully  watched  and  controlled. 

After  the  invention  of  movable  type,  came  the  cast  metal 
type.  This  brought  printing  into  particular  notice,  for  once  a 
mould  was  made  for  a  letter  or  character,  any  number  of  pieces 
of  type  could  be  cast  in  it  and  they  would  all  be  alike,  a  thing 
not  possible  in  the  wooden  type. 

Simultaneous  to  this  metal  type  invention  came  improved 
presses  and  now  hardly  a  week  goes  by  that  does  not  develop 
new  improvements  and  devices  for  producing  better  work,  or 
for  producing  it  more  quickly  or  with  more  ease. 

Present  day  practices  in  printing  vary  in  different  shops  and 
in  different  communities.  There  is  the  small  shop  which,  for 
lack  of  equipment,  must  still  do  things  in  an  elementary  way. 
There  is  the  large  shop  so  highly  specialized  that  one  workman 
in  the  plant  could  not  carry  on  another  workman's  task.  In 
the  small  job  shop  the  type  is  set  by  hand  and  sometimes  the 
presses  are  run  by  foot  power,  while,  in  the  large  shops  prac- 
tically all  of  the  composition  work,  as  setting  type  is  called,  is 
done  on  the  linotype  and  monotype  machines,  machines  which 
cast  the  type  a  line  or  a  piece  at  a  time  as  well  as  arranging  it 
in  proper  order.  In  the  large  shops  the  presses  are  operated  by 
power  and  recent  developments  have  produced  automatic  feed- 
ing devices  so  that  even  the  man  who  formerly  fed  the  paper  into 
the  press  to  be  printed  is  dispensed  with,  .at  least  it  now  takes 
only  one  man  to  adjust  the  feeders  which  do  the  work  formerly 
done  by  a  half  dozen  or  more  men. 

There  will  always  be  a  place  for  the  small  job  shop,  and 
fortunate  it  is,  for,  with  the  complex  organization  of  any  large 
business,  it  is  hard  for  an  individual  to  get  an  insight  into  very 
many  phases  of  that  business.  The  processes  necessary  to  com- 
plete a  printed  job  are  about  the  same  in  the  large  and  small 
shops,  but  in  one  the  job  is  handed  on  from  workman  to  work- 


232 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 


face 
Serif 
Shoulder 


Feet- 


Tig.  I 


133^261880 


IflA/AXAStf 
VBCDEEGHIl 

As  they  appear  in  type. 

Fig.  2 


ABCDEFGHIJ 

KLMNOPQRS 

TUVWXYZ& 

abcdefehijklm 

nopqrstuvwxyz 

1234567890 

A*  they  appear  in  print. 

fig.  3 


man,  each  doing  his  part  toward  producing  the  job,  while  in  the 
other  the  job  is  usually  handled  by  a  very  few  and  sometimes  by 
only  one  person. 

The  first  step  in  producing  a  piece  of  printed  matter  is  the 
designing  or  arranging  of  the  copy.  This  may  be  only  a  mental 
picture  of  the  finished  work,  an  idea,  or  it  may  be  a  sketch  on 
paper  indicating  details  such  as  size  and  style  of  type,  arrange- 
ment, color,  etc.  After  the  design  has  been  determined  upon, 
composition,  the  setting  up  of  the  type  according  to  the  design, 
is  the  next  step.  In  order  then  follow,  pulling  the  proof,  proof 
reading,  correcting  (known  as  imposition),  locking  up,  making 
ready  and  press  work.  If  it  is  a  book  or  a  booklet,  it  requires 
in  addition  to  the  above  mentioned,  folding,  collating  and  binding. 

The  type  used  today  is  made  of  a  white  metal,  harder  than 
lead  but  not  so  hard  as  tin.  It  is  cast  in  a  mould  a  letter  or  a 
character  at  a  time.  The  body  of  the  type  is  always  the  same 
height  but  the  size  of  the  face  and  the  height  and  width  of  the 
letter  vary  with  different  styles  and  sizes  of  type.  Fig.  1  repre- 
sents a  type  body  of  the  letter  N  with  the  names  of  the  various 
parts  indicated  upon  it.  The  size  of  the  type  from  the  front  to 
back  is  indicated  by  points,  a  point  (about  1/72  of  an  inch), 
being  a  unit  of  measurement  in  type  just  as  an  inch  is  a  unit  of 
linear  measurement.  Type  sizes  range  in  height  from  3y2  to 
72  points. 

The  imprint  made  from  type  is  different  in  appearance  from 
that  of  the  type  itself  and  the  printer  must  become  familiar 
with  the  appearance  of  both.  He  must  be  able  to  read  type  as 
quickly  as  he  can  read  a  printed  page.  Fig.  2  shows  how  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  appear  in  type  while  Fig.  3  shows  how 
the  print  made  from  the  type  looks  on  the  printed  page. 

Type  is  kept  in  shallow  trays  called  type  cases.  They  are 
so  divided  that  there  is  a  compartment,  called  a  sort  box,  for  each 
letter,  figure  or  character.  There  are  many  arrangements  of 
type  cases  but  the  most  commonly  used  are  the  News  and  the 


233 


Lower  Ne 


Fig-4 


Upper  News 


California    Job 


California  job  case,  Fig.  4.  To  acquire  skill  in  setting  type,  one 
must  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  location  of  each  char- 
acter as  it  is  not  practicable  to  take  time  to  look  at  the  charac- 
ters as  they  are  taken  from  the  case. 

"Family"  is  the  term  applied  to  the  design  of  the  printing 
face  of  the  type.  The  family  is  indicated  by  some  name  such  as 
"Century,"  "Lining  DeVinne"  or  "Post  Monotone."  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  type  of  different  sizes  for  most  every  job  of  print- 
ing, but  it  is  seldom  necessary,  at  least  it  does  not  produce  the 
best  design  to  have  different  families  of  type  in  the  same  job. 
The  best  examples  of  printing  are  done  in  one  family  of  type, 
variety  of  design  being  produced  by  using  different  sizes,  by 
the  selection  of  different  styles  in  that  family  such  as  bold,  con- 
densed, italic,  etc.,  and  by  careful  arrangement  of  spaces  and 
masses  of  type.  Fig.  5  shows  several  families  of  type,  several 
styles  of  one  family  and  several  sizes  of  one  style. 

Blank  type  bodies  which  are  not  high  enough  to  print,  are 
placed  between  words  and  sentences,  the  larger  ones  being 
known  as  quads  and  the  smaller  ones  as  spaces.  The  face  or  end 
of  an  em  quad  is  square,  no  matter  what  point  of  type  is  used, 
for  example,  in  ten  point  type  the  em  quad  is  10  points  from 
front  to  back  and  10  points  from  side  to  side,  while  in  eight  point 
type  the  em  quad  is  8  points  from  front  to  back  and  from  side 
to  side. 

An  em        quad  is  square- _ • 

A  double  quad  is  equivalent  to  2  em  quads Bi 

A  triple     quad  is  equivalent  to  3  em  quads BBB 

An  en         quad  is  equivalent  to  J£  of  an  em  quad J 

Three   3  em  spaces  are  equivalent  to  1  em  quad — I 

Four     4  em  spaces  are  equivalent  to  1  em  quad _..j 

Five      5  em  spaces  are  equivalent  to  1  em  quad \ 

Type  is  set  in  a  composing  stick,  Fig.  6,  which  can  be  ad- 
justed to  various  lengths.  The  compositor  first  sights  the  type 


234 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 


Families  of  Type 

Styles  of  One  family 

Different  Sizes  of  Type 

Gushing  Antique 
Lining  DeVinne 

Century  Oldstyle 

Century  Expanded 
Century  Expanded.  Ital.w 
Century  Bold 

24  Point 

Post  Monotone 

Century  Bold  Italic 

18  Point    : 

Clearface 

fentury  Bold  Condensed 

Adtype  Series 

Century  Bold  Extended 

12  Point  type 

Bullfinch  Oldstyle 

Century  Oldstyle 

10  Point  type 

New  Caslon 

Century  Oldstyle  Italic 

8  Point  type 

Bold  Antique 

Century  Oldstyle  Bold 

6  Point  type 

Condensed  Dorsey 

Century  Oldstyle  Bold  Italic 

body  he  wishes  to  use,  then  picks  it  up  with  the  right  hand  by 
the  face  end  of  the  type,  twirls  it  between  the  thumb  and  fore 
finger  until  the  nicks  are  uppermost,  and  drops  it  into  place  in 
the  composing  stick  where  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  holds  it 
erect,  Fig.  7.  The  eyes  of  the  compositor  should  be  kept  on  the 
case  and  not  on  the  stick  if  any  sort  of  speed  is  to  be  acquired. 
While  the  hands  are  placing  the  type,  the  eyes  are  sighting  the 
next  sort  box  and  type  body.  At  the  end  of  a  word,  ordinarily 
a  3  em  space  is  used,  before  a  paragraph  an  em  quad  and  be- 
tween sentences  an  en  quad.  When  the  end  of  the  line  is 
reached,  if  the  line  of  words  does  not  tightly  fill  the  stick,  the 
spaces  are  exchanged  for  larger  sizes  so  that  the  words  are 
"driven  out"  to  the  full  measure  of  the  stick.  The  method  of 
changing  type  bodies  in  the  stick  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  8.  With 
the  newly  selected  character  the  old  one  is  pushed  part  way  out, 
the  new  one  is  dropped  in  its  place  and  the  old  one  removed  and 
returned  to  its  proper  sort  box.  If  "in  placing  this  type  body  it 
binds,  it  should  be  started  as  in  Fig.  9,  and  the  entire  line  lifted 
up  at  one  end.  This  will  make  room  for  the  type  body  to  enter. 

When  an  entire  line  has  been  set  up  it  should  be  read  to  see 
if  the  spelling  and  punctuation  are  correct,  or  if  any  other  errors, 
such  as  the  use  of  different  sizes  or  styles  of  letters,  have  been 
made.  If  an  error  is  found  it  is  changed  as  above  described  and 
the  next  line  is  set  up. 

When  a  stick  is  completely  filled  with  type,  it  is  taken  out  as 
in  Fig.  10,  and  placed  in  a  galley  (a  small  tray),  Fig.  11,  and 
the  next  group  of  lines  set  up.  If  the  type  set  up  is  not  to  be 
printed  from  immediately,  it  must  be  tied  to  keep  the  type  from 
falling  over  and  becoming  disarranged.  This  so  called  tying  is 
done  by  winding  a  piece  of  cord  around  the  type  several  times, 


PRINTING 


235 


Fig.  6 


End 


Bottom 


'Fig-  7 


drawing  it  tight  and  tucking  the  ends  under  the  whole  group  of 
cords  as  in  Fig.  12. 

The  next  operation  is  taking  the  proof.  Some  printing  ink 
is  placed  on  a  piece  of  heavy  glass  or  a  sheet  of  metal  and  rolled 
with  a  brayer,  Fig.  13,  until  the  ink  is  distributed  evenly  over  it. 
This  inked  brayer  is  then  rolled  over  the  faces  of  the  type  pre- 
viously tied  up  until  every  exposed  part  of  the  type  faces  has 
been  inked.  A  piece  of  proof  paper,  usually  a  light,  smooth  sur- 
faced paper,  is  laid  over  the  inked  type,  the  proof  planer,  Fig.  14, 
placed  on  top  of  it  and  pounded  lightly  with  a  mallet.  This 
proof  planer  has  a  medium  soft,  felt  covered  surface  which 
pushes  the  paper  down  against  every  type  face.  The  paper  is 
then  pulled  off.  It  should  contain  an  imprint  of  every  type  face 
showing  how  the  finished  job  will  look. 

Next  the  proof  is  marked,  that  is  the  errors  are  located  and, 
with  a  series  of  symbols,  they  are  marked  as  reminders  of  the 
changes  necessary  to  make  the  job  correct.  The  marks  used 
are  standard.  Some  of  them  are  known  as  body  marks  and 
some  as  marginal  marks.  Body  marks  indicate  the  location  of 
the  errors  and  marginal  marks  show  what  changes  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make.  Figs.  15  and  16  show  the  most  frequently  used 
proof  marks  and  a  sheet  of  proof  properly  marked. 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  9 


236 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 


Fig.  10 


Fig.  11 

G  c//eys  ^  Furniture 


Type. 


Fig.  12 


Fig.  14 


brought 

up  tiaht/y  behind 
^S>-W     a// cords 

*sg^&&&2&sez 


-First  end  held 
fast  by  succeeding 
wrappings 


Fig.  13 


The  form,  as  this  mass  of  type  is  called,  is  next  corrected, 
that  is,  the  errors  found  and  recorded  on  the  proof  are  made  right 
in  the  type.  If  these  are  only  minor  changes,  such  as  replacing 
broken  letters,  they  may  be  made  with  the  form  on  the  imposing 
stone,  but  if  any  great  amount  of  changing  is  necessary  the 
form  must  be  put  back  in  the  stick  otherwise  the  length  of  line 
might  accidentally  be  changed. 

When  the  form  is  corrected,  the  chase  is  placed  around  it, 
wooden  sticks  called  furniture  are  placed  between  the  form  and 
the  chase  and  locked  (wedged)  in  place  with  quoins,  Fig.  17. 
In  order  to  make  sure  that  all  type  faces  are  on  the  same  plane 
the  form  is  "planed  up,"  that  is,  a  planer  similar  in  shape  to  the 
proof  planer  but  without  the  felt  covering,  is  placed  on  the  mass 
of  type  and  pounded  gently  with  a  mallet.  This  will  force  any 
protruding  type  down  to  the  level  of  others  around  it.  The  quoins 
must  then  be  tightened.  While  the  form  must  be  securely  locked 
in  order  to  keep  it  from  falling  out  of  the  chase,  extreme  care  is 
necessary  not  to  get  it  too  tight  or  the  form  and  furniture  will 
buckle  and  fly  out  of  the  chase.  To  test  the  "lock  up"  the  corner 
of  the  chase  is  slightly  elevated  and  the  hand  rubbed  over  the 
faces  of  the  type  to  see  if  any  of  the  type  bodies  will  push 
through.  If  it  is  possible  to  push  down  type  bodies  or  a  line  of 
type,  it  indicates  that  that  line  was  not  properly  "justified,"  that 


PRINTING 


237 


A  PIECE  OF  WORK 

I  urn  only  a  pieie  of  work. 
After  I  leave  your  hands  you  may 

People  look  in?  at  em,  however,  wilt 
ese  you  and  ,  so  far  as  they  are  con  . 
cerned.  I'll  be  you.  H^ 

Put  Into  me  your  best  so  that  I  may 
speak  to  all  who  see  me  and  tell  them 
of  the  master  workman  who  wrought 

me.  Say  to  them  through  me  "I  know 
what  good  work    is.  ' 

If  I  am  well  done,  I  will  good  Into  get 
company  and  keed  up  the  standard. 
If  I  am    Shabby  and  poorly    I  will  get 
into  had  company. 

The"  how  through  me  yo"r  joy  In 
what  yon  do,  so  that  I  may  go  made, 
the  way  of  all  good  work,  announcing 
wherever 

I  go  that  Istand  for  a  workman  that 
needct  not  to  be  as  named 

William    Chandler    smith. 


y.  A  PIECE  ^F  WORK 
c/  Xm  only  *  pie/e  °'  work- 

After  I  leave  your  hands  you  may 


Athey  are  coif, 


&  yo^and^  so  far 
Cerned,  I'll  be  you. 

Put  into  me  your  -*«*  so  that  I  may    Arm. 
speak  to  all  who  see  me  and  tell  them 
of  the  master  workman  who  wrought 


Fig.16 


me.AS.y  to  them^rough  meA"l  know  »    + 
what  good  work*is.  X  ,       ,    "/V 

If  I  am  well  done.  I  will  good  Into  get  A. 
£>     company  and  kee/  up  the  standard. 
rVf/4  Jl  I  am^habby  and  poorly^  I  will  get  «•*•"»«/ 

Into  had  company 

rf*h      Thef^ow  through  me  vol»r  toy  In  3    tt/3 
'c,  '      what  yof  do.  so  that  I  may^ma-deO  <&r/<Jl/3 
tot      the\wayof  all  good  work.  announcin~  ^ 
^Jt  wherever) 
/4      ^T)co  that  Ist 


m  •=Eh7ndler'7mlth.  " 


•*!£' 


(2)  Body  mark»— 


Fig.  15 


Fig- 17 


is,  properly  filled  out  to  the  full  measure  of  the  line.  The  error 
must  be  corrected  by  increasing  sufficiently  the  size  of  some 
space  or  spaces  in  the  line.  This  calls  for  very  fine  adjustment 
because  if  the  line  is  made  the  least  bit  too  tight,  the  original 
error  is  only  multiplied :  the  corrected  line  will  lock  up  tight 
but  others  will  be  loose.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  be  sure  that 
all  lines  justify  before  the  type  is  removed  from  the  stick.  If 
all  lines  of  type  stay  in  place,  the  form  is  said  to  "lift"  and  the 
work  of  putting  it  on  the  press  can  then  proceed. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  job  presses  but  perhaps  the  most 
widely  used  is  known  as  the  Gordon  press,  Fig.  18.  Before  a 
job  is  printed,  the  press  should  be  thoroughly  adjusted  and  prop- 
erly oiled  and  the  rollers  placed  in  position.  Good  press  work 
depends  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  rollers.  Rollers  are  made 
of  glue,  glycerine,  castor-oil,  borax  and  varnish,  these  materials 
being  melted  together  and  cast  in  a  mould  around  an  iron  rod  or 
core  which  is  wound  with  a  cord  to  keep  the  composition  from 
slipping  off.  There  are  winter  and  summer  rollers,  the  propor- 
tion of  the  ingredients  in  the  composition  being  changed  to  meet 
the  condition  of  the  season.  To  do  good  work,  rollers  must  be 
kept  clean  and  their  surfaces  alive,  that  is  flexible.  If  they  be- 
come hard  and  dead,  they  should  be  remade. 


238 


PAPER  AND  PRINTING 


To  ink  the  press,  a  brayer  heavily  inked  as  when  taking  a 
proof,  is  run  over  the  disk  on  the  press.  In  the  absence  of  a 
brayer,  small  portions  of  ink  may  be  placed  on  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  disk  and  the  press  operated  with  the  rollers  in  place 
until  the  ink  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  disk  and  rollers. 

The  platen,  that  part  of  the  press  on  which  the  sheet  of 
paper  is  laid  to  receive  the  impression  from  the  type,  has  to  be 
padded  with  paper  to  form  a  tympan.  The  building  up  of  the 
tympan  to  suit  any  particular  form  is  called  "making  ready." 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  operations  in  printing  for, 
without  a  proper  make  ready,  good  printing  cannot  be  done. 
In  making  ready  a  press,  the  lower  bale  is  loosened  and  a  draw 
sheet  of  heavy,  hard  surfaced  paper  slipped  under  it  and  the  bale 
clamped  down.  Several  sheets  of  paper  called  pad  sheets  are 
next  placed  on  the  platen  under  the  draw  sheet  and  the  draw 
sheet  is  smoothed  tightly  over  them  and  clamped  under  the  up- 
per bale,  Fig.  19. 

The  ringers  or  grippers  must  next  be  loosened  and  moved 
out  to  the  edge  of  the  gripper  bar  and  fastened  securely.  The 
chase  containing  the  form  is  then  lifted  and  set  on  the  projecting 
lugs  on  the  bed  of  the  press,  and  the  clamp  above  the  bed  lifted 
so  that  the  chase  can  be  slipped  in  place  and  the  clamp  made 
tight.  The  chase  should  be  shoved  to  the  extreme  left  side  of 
the  bed  before  being  clamped  permanently. 

The  fly  wheel  of  the  press  is  turned  sufficiently  to  close  the 
press  and  as  the  tympan  closes  against  the  bed  of  the  press,  now 
containing  the  form  of  type,  close  watch  is  kept  to  see  that  the 
grippers  are  far  enough  out  of  the  way  to  prevent  them  striking 
the  type.  The  throw  off  must  also  be  adjusted  so  that  the 
tympan  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the  type.  The  grippers 
should  be  as  close  to  the  type  form  as  possible  without  striking 
it.  The  distance  may  be  very  small  on  the  right  side  but  on  the 
left  at  least  one  inch  must  be  allowed  in  order  to  prevent  them 
from  crushing  the  gauge  pins. 


PRINTING 


239 


Fig.20 


Impression 
mode  on 
draw  sheet 


•Side  Qa  uge  pin 


-Imposition 
Of  paper 
locating 
bottom 
gaugepms 


Top  bale 


Fig.21 


The  press  is  run  slowly  until  the  platen  closes  a  couple 
of  times.  This  will  ink  the  type  and  then,  while  the  press  is  in 
motion,  the  throw  off  lever  is  shifted,  allowing  the  tympan  to 
be  closed  against  the  form.  This  results  is  an  imprint  being 
made  on  the  draw  sheet.  The  press  is  then  thrown  off  (the 
lever  shifted  so  that  even  though  the  platen  closes  up  again 
no  imprint  is  made).  The  imprint  is  then  examined.  If  an  even 
impression  is  made  it  shows  that  the  padding  or  the  "make 
ready"  is  just  right.  If  parts  are  indistinct,  in  all  probability 
there  is  not  enough  padding,  however  it  is  hardly  safe  to  judge 
the  make  ready  by  the  impression  obtained  on  the  draw  sheet. 
With  a  piece  of  stock  on  which  the  printing  is  to  be  done,  the 
position  of  each  gauge  pin  is;,  located  as  shown  in  Fig.  20  and 
the  gauge  pins  inserted,  two  at  the  bottom  and  one  at  the  left. 
A  piece  of  stock  is  set  against  the  gauge  pins  and  an  impres- 
sion made  upon  it.  If,  upon  examination,  the  impression  is 
clear  cut  and  even,  the  make  ready  is  correct.  If,  when  the  sheet 
is  turned  over,  it  shows  that  the  letters  have  punched  through, 
the  impression  is  too  heavy  and  a  pad  sheet  should  be  removed. 
If,  at  any  point,  the  impression  is  too  heavy  and  at  another  it 
is  too  light,  the  sheet  will  have  to  be  "spotted"  as  follows.  All 
of  that  part  of  the  proof  where  the  impression  is  too  heavy  is  cut 
away  with  a  knife.  With  the  scissors  is  cut  a  piece  of  very 
thin  tissue  paper  which  will  just  cover  that  part  of  the  impres- 
sion which  was  weak.  This  is  fastened  upon  the  proof  with  a 
small  quantity  of  paste.  Too  much  will  soften  the  paper.  With 
a  little  paste  applied  to  the  corners  of  this  spotted  proof  it  is 
set  against  the  gauge  pins  and  permanently  held  in  place.  The 
upper  bale  is  then  lifted  and  a  pad  sheet  equal  in  thickness  to  the 
proof  sheet,  removed  and  the  bale  replaced.  A  new  sheet  of  stock 
is  then  placed  against  the  gauge  pins  and  an  impression  made 
upon  it.  If  this  impression  is  not  uniform,  the  process  of  spot- 
ting is  repeated. 

When  an  even  impression  is  secured,  a  second  draw  sheet  is 


240  PAPER  AND  PRINTING 

applied  as  follows.  Holding  the  hand  firmly  against  the  tympan 
so  that  the  pad  sheets  cannot  move,  the  lower  bale  is  lifted,  the 
second  or  top  draw  sheet  inserted  and  the  bale  clamped  down. 
The  draw  sheet  is  then  pulled  up  over  the  gauge  pins  and  by 
rubbing  gently  on  the  top  of  the  draw  sheet,  their  positions  can 
be  located  on  the  new  draw  sheet.  The  gauge  pins  are  removed, 
the  upper  bale  loosened,  a  pad  sheet  which  is  equal  in  thick- 
ness to  a  draw  sheet  removed  and  the  draw  sheet  laid  smoothly 
over  the  tympan  and  fastened  under  the  top  bale.  The  gauge 
pins  are  then  inserted  in  the  new  draw  sheet.  A  sheet  of  stock 
is  placed  against  the  gauge  pins  and  an  impression  made  upon 
it.  It  may  be  found  that  the  gauge  pins  will  need  slight  adjust- 
ment to  make  the  margins  equal  or  of  the  proper  proportion. 

Speed  in  press  work  can  only  be  acquired  by  continued  prac- 
tice. Slow,  deliberate  motions,  properly  placed,  produce  more 
work  than  hasty  actions  full  of  lost  motion.  The  stock  should 
be  placed  in  an  even  stack  on  the  delivery  table  and  picked  up 
a  sheet  at  a  time  with  the  right  hand  and  fed  into  the  press. 
After  the  impression  is  made,  the  printed  sheet  is  removed  with 
the  left  hand  while  the  right  hand  is  picking  up  a  new  sheet  of 
stock  to  be  fed  into  the  press.  In  case  the  sheet  slips,  falls  out, 
or  is  in  any  way  misplaced,  rather  than  let  the  press  close  upon 
it,  the  throw  off  lever  should  be  shifted  with  the  left  hand,  and 
when  the  press  again  opens  the  sheet  may  be  adjusted.  This 
is  very  important  for,  if  the  press  closes  without  a  piece  of  pa- 
per to  take  the  imprint,  the  imprint  will  be  made  on  the  draw 
sheet  and  then  when  the  next  sheet  of  stock  is  fed  into  the  press, 
the  draw  sheet  impression  will  "off  set"  onto  the  back  of  the 
paper.  While  it  is  true  that  this  can  be  washed  off  the  tympan 
with  gasoline,  or  dusted  with  powdered  chalk  or  talcum,  so  that 
the  work  may  be  resumed  without  danger  of  offset,  time  is  lost 
in  doing  it  and  the  make  ready  does  not  look  well. 

The  selection  of  inks  should  be  carefully  made.  Porous 
paper  takes  a  slower  drying  ink  than  a  highly  glazed  paper. 
Half  tone  cuts  require  a  very  fine  ink  which  is  rather  quick 
drying.  Cover  paper  needs  a  very  thick,  heavy  ink. 

After  a  job  is  run,  the  chase  should  be  removed  to  the 
stone  and  the  form,  washed  up  with  gasoline.  The  ink  should 
be  removed  from  the  disk  on  the  press  with  gasoline  and  from 
the  rollers  with  kerosene. 

After  the  form  is  washed  up,  the  quoins  unlocked,  the  furni- 
ture removed  and  distributed  to  its  proper  place,  a  few  lines  of 
the  type  are  taken  out  of  the  form,  nick  side  up  as  in  Fig.  21, 
and  a  word  or  two  picked  off  with  the  right  hand  and  dropped 
a  letter  at  a  time  into  their  proper  sort  boxes. 


241 


SHOE  REPAIRING 

Shoes  are  today  usually  made  by  machinery,  but  when  they 
need  repairing  that  can  be  done  by  hand  with  a  simple  and  inex- 
pensive equipment.  It  is  quite  necessary  to  have  a  convenient, 
well  lighted  place  in  which  to  work.  If  only  a  few  shoes  are  to 
be  repaired,  one  can  put  up  with  inconveniences,  but  if  a  perma- 
nent equipment  is  desired,  a  shoe  maker's  stool,  Fig.  1,  should 
be  obtained.  This  can  easily  be  made.  One  should  also  have  a 
low  table  for  holding  the  tools  and  materials.  Fig.  2  shows  a 
cabinet  of  simple  construction,  well  adapted  for  holding  the  tools 
and  materials  on  top  when  in  use  and  providing  a  place  for  their 
storage  when  not  in  service.  The  equipment  and  supplies  needed 
can  be  limited  to  those  items  in  the  following  list.  Fig.  3  shows 
the  designs  and  names  of  the  tools  used  in  this  work. 

EQUI PMENT  SUPPLIES 

**Iron  Stand  ^Carborundum    Strop  Leather 

*Set  of  Lasts,  Asst'd   **Peg  Awl  Heel  Nails,  sizes  3-8  to  8-8 

sizes,  A,  B,  C,  D       *Slab  Awl  Clinch  Nails,    "   3-8  to  7-8 

^Pinchers  **Sewing  Awl  Wooden  Shoe  Pegs 

*Nippers  fCnspin  Lap  Iron        Sand  Paper,  No.  ll/2 

^Cutting    Nippers          **Crispen   Rasp  Burnishing  Ink 

**Shoe  Hammer  tlnk  Brush  Shoe  Maker's  Thread 

**Curved  Lip  Knife         tHeel  Slicker  or  Bristles 

*Square  Point  Knife  Burnisher  Heel    Ball    (Shoe   Maker's 

*Sole  Leather  Skiver    fKerosene   Heater  Wax) 

*Scratch  Bone  fShoe  Brush  Leather    Cement 

Rubber  Cement 

**Individual  tools. 
*One  tool  for  every  four  pupils. 
tOne  tool  only  for  each  shop. 

Before  undertaking  the  repairing  of  the  shoe,  it  is  very  es- 
sential that  the  names  and  purposes  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
shoe  be  learned,  Fig.  4.  One  must  also  become  familiar  with 
the  kinds  of  material  used  in  these  different  parts  and  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  construction.  Not  all  shoes  are  made  alike,  but  the 
chief  difference  is  in  the  method  of  fastening  the  sole  to  the  top 
part  of  the  shoe.  There  are  three  ways  of  doing  this ;  i.  e.,  peg- 
ging, nailing  and  sewing.  Pegged  shoes  are  not  used  as  much  as 
they  once  were.  New  shoes  are  seldom  nailed  except  on  the 
heel.  Most  of  the  shoe  soles  today  are  sewed. 

There  are  three  general  ways  of  sewing  on  a  shoe  sole: 
channel  sewing,  turned  sewing  and  welt  sewing.  A  channel 
sewed  shoe  is  sewed  through  and  through  from  the  inside  of  the 


242 


SHOE  REPAIRING 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


shoe  to  the  outside  of  the  sole,  Fig.  5.  In  turn  sewed  shoes,  the 
upper  is  sewed  to  the  sole  on  the  wrong  side  and  then  turned, 
Fig.  6.  A  welt  sewed  shoe  is  made  by  sewing  a  welt  (a  strip  of 
leather)  to  the  inner  sole  and  upper,  and  then  sewing  the  outer 
sole  to  the  welt,  Fig.  7. 

The  outside  or  exposed  portions  of  shoes  are  made  princi- 
pally ^of  leather,  although  changing  styles  demand  different  ma- 
terials, therefore,  canvas,  pattern  fabrics,  patent  •  leather,  rub- 
ber, 'etc.,  are  used.  The  kinds  of  leather  used  for  uppers  are  kid, 
calf,  elk  and  alligator  and  sometimes  in  cheaper  shoes,  sheep 
skin.  The  soles  are  made  of  ox  or  cow  hide.  The  leather  is 
prepared  by  tanning.  A  liquor  made  from  the  bark  of  trees  con- 
taining tannic  acid  is  used  in  tanning  sole  leather.  The  hides 
of  which  the  leather  is  made  are  sometimes  salted  and  dried  and 
sometimes  shipped  to  the  tanners  "green."  There  they  are 
soaked  in  water  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  salt  and  then  milled 
or  worked  until  they  become  soft  and  pliable.  The  hair  is  loos- 


Stand- 


Knife  Sharpener  Skiver 

=£=5»  ^ -x 

Hipper,  C^=^> 


Peg  Aw/ 
Scratch  bor,,       \y^fttlf>* •»''(**" 


LEATHER 


243 


Quarter 


Vamp' 


Shank 


ened  by  soaking  the  hide  in  a  lime  solution.  The  hair  is  then 
scraped  off  and  the  hide  soaked  in  tan  bark  liquors  of  various 
strengths,  first  a  3  per  cent  solution  and  finally  a  20  per  cent 
solution.  The  first  soakings  swell  or  "plump"  the  hide  and 
allow  the  later  soaking  to  penetrate  the  hide.  The  leather  is 
then  partly  dried  and  the  outer  sufface  given  a  hard  finish  by 
polishing  it  under  revolving  brass  rollers. 

Patent  leather  is  a  made  leather.  It  consists  of  a  backing  of 
canvas  or  a  cheap  grade  of  leather  coated  with  a  flexible,  black, 
glossy  substance  resembling  a  highly  polished  piece  of  leather. 
Patent  leather  shoes  are  unreliable  due  to  the  fact  that  chang- 
ing weather  conditions  make  the  surface  crack.  Once  the  sur- 
face is  broken,  moisture  seeps  in  at  this  point  and  rots  the  back- 
ing and  the  leather  breaks.  There  are  also  substitutes  for 
leather  soles  but  the  best  of  these  do  not  compare  with  those 
made  of  leather. 


CHANNEL     SEWED 

Fig.  5 


-Channel   \ 
(open) 


Fig.  6 

TURNED  SEWED 


WELT  SEWED 


V  Channel^  Outsold 
barred  felt 


Xitches 
holdina  welt- 
to  otfso/e 


244 


SHOE  REPAIRING 


rBend 

(faestgivde  half  sole) 


, 

(Insoles  and  M/dd/e5o/es) 


Repairing  shoes  can  be  divided  into  the  following  groups  of 
operations :  half-soling,  heeling,  patching  and  sewing  rips.  Heel- 
ing is  the  simplest  and  the  easiest  to  accomplish.  Heels  usually 
wear  down  on  the  back  nearest  the  outside,  due  to  the  manner 
in  which  people  walk,  that  part  of  the  heel  striking  first.  It  is 
injurious  to  health  to  wear  shoes  "run  down"  (worn  away)  at 
the  heel,  as  it  creates  a  strain  on  certain  muscles  in  the  foot  and 
ankle.  Heels  should  be  built  up  so  that  all  parts  of  the  heel 
rest  on  the  floor  when  the  ball  of  the  shoe  is  on  the  floor.  The 
best  heels  are  made  of  leather,  but  some  heels,  especially  high 
heels  for  women,  are  made  of  beech  or  birch  wood  and  covered 
with  leather.  In  half-soling  and  heeling  shoes  it  is  advisable  to 
use  only  the  best  grade  of  sole  leather.  Leather  for  soles  and 
heels  should  be  cut  out  of  the  hide  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  and  the 
outside  used  as  the  outside  of  the  sole.  The  difference  between 
the  shape  of  the  right  and  left  sole  should  be  studied  and  a  piece 
of  leather  slightly  larger  than  the  sole,  cut  out.  A  pattern  of 
the  exact  shape  and  size  can  be  made  if  the  shoe  to  be  repaired 
is  set  on  a  piece  of  paper,  a  line  drawn  around  the  old  sole  and 
the  paper  cut  out  y%"  outside  of  the  line.  Since  leather  is  quite 
porous  it  is  best  to  soak  the  new  soles  in  water  for  several  hours 
and  then  stand  them  up  where  the  water  can  drain  off.  If  al- 
lowed to  drain  too  long  they  will  become  too  dry  to  work  well, 
but  when  that  point  is  reached  where  the  leather  is  pliable,  they 
should  be  pounded  with  a  hammer  over  a  lap  iron  or  some  other 
hard,  smooth  surface  until  the  leather  is  hard  and  compact  and 
"moulded"  into  the  proper  shape,  cup  shaped,  curved  two  ways 
as  in  Fig.  9.  This  moulding  makes  the  leather  "lift"  or  "half- 
sole"  come  in  close  contact  at  the  places  where  it  is  fastened  to 
the  shoe,  and  as  the  leather  dries  out  it  shrinks  and  draws  the 
center  part  tight  against  the  shoe. 

To  repair  a  worn  heel,  the  top  lift  (the  bottom  layer  of  leather 


HEELING 


245 


Fig.  9 


Section  E>-E> 


Fig.  10 


Tacked  on 


on  the  heel),  should  be  torn  off  with  pinchers.  An  iron  last  which 
fits  is  slipped  inside  the  shoe  and  placed  on  the  iron  stand  and 
the  stand  placed  on  the  floor  between  the  knees.  The  protruding 
nails  in  the  heel  are  cut  off  as  close  as  possible  to  the  heel  and 
the  remaining  part  driven  in.  Pounding  on  the  heel  will  have  a 
tendency  to  make  the  last  jump  off  the  stand.  To  prevent  this 
a  small  strap  or  light  rope  made  in  a  loop  may  be  slipped  over 
the  shoe  and  last  and  under  the  right  foot  of  the  workman.  If 
more  than  the  top  lift  has  been  worn  off  a  small  piece  of  sole 
leather  should  be  cut  slightly  larger  than  that  part  of  the  heel 
worn  down  and  so  shaped  and  tapered  that  it  will  restore  the 
heel  to  its  original  shape.  This  piece  of  leather  is  fastened  on 
by  first  driving  a  peg  awl  through  the  piece  into  the  heel  and 
then  inserting  and  driving  in  a  few  wooden  shoe-pegs.  Nails 
would  hold  just  as  well  but  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  trim 
away  any  part  of  the  leather,  the  nails  would  be  in  the  way 
while  the  pegs  can  be  cut  away  just  as  easily  as  the  leather. 

A  piece  of  tough  sole  leather  properly  moulded,  and  which 
is  about  the  size  of  the  heel,  is  next  cut  and  held  in  place  tem- 
porarily with  about  three  heel  nails.  The  entire  heel  is  then 
shaped  and  the  pitch  tested  to  see  if  the  heel  is  of  the  proper 
height.  The  lift  is  then  fastened  on  permanently  with  heel  nails 
arranged  as  shown  at  F-Fig.  10.  The  sides  of  the  heel  are  sand 
papered  smooth  so  that  the  new  parts  blend  in  with  the  old. 
The  surface  is  then  "set  up,"  that  is,  the  edge  of  the  heel  is 
sponged  and  while  moist  it  is  polished  with  a  heel  slicker  or 
burnisher,  which  should  be  heated  about  as  hot  as  an  iron  for 
pressing  garments.  It  should  be  rubbed  briskly  back  and  forth 
over  the  surface  until  the  surface  is  made  smooth.  Black  shoe 
ink  is  then  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  heel  and  when  it  is  about 
dry  the  heel  is  again  burnished  until  it  becomes  slick  and  black. 
The  shoes  should  then  be  examined  inside  to  see  that  no  nails 


246 


SHOE  REPAIRING 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  12 


'/fee/  nails 


Fig.  13 


1HH 


protrude  and  that  the  surface  is  smooth.  -  Fig.  10  shows  the 
various  steps  in  heeling  a  shoe. 

Rubber  heels,  Fig.  11,  are  put  on  in  much  the  same  way  as 
the  top  lift  of  a  leather  heel.  It  is  necessary  to  remove  enough 
of  the  heel  to  give  the  shoe  the  right  pitch  after  the  rubber  heel 
is  added.  A  heel  of  the  right  size  must  be  selected  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  trim  a  rubber  heel.  Holes  are  already  made  for  the  nails 
in  a  rubber  heel.  While  they  do  not  show,  washers  are  also 
placed  in  the  heel  so  that  the  heads  of  the  nails  cannot  pull 
through.  After  the  heel  is  properly  shaped,  both  it  and  the 
inside  of  the  rubber  heel  are  given  a  coat  of  rubber  cement. 
When  this  turns  white  the  heel  is  placed  in  position  and  nailed. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  use  a  nail  set  to  make  the  nails  go  in  deep 
enough,  Figs.  12  and  13.  The  edge  of  the  heel  can  be  trimmed 
if  it  does  not  fit  perfectly  but  it  cannot  be  burnished. 

In  half  soling  a  shoe  the  forward  part  of  the  sole  is  cut 
away,  first  by  cutting  across  the  sole  midway  between  the  ball 
and  shank  of  the  shoe,  holding  the  knife  at  an  angle  as  shown  in 
Fig.  14.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  knife  does  not 
penetrate  too  deeply  and  cut  into  the  inner  sole.  After  the  in- 
cision is  made  all  the  way  across  the  sole,  the  lower  part  should 
be  cut  away  if  the  sole  is  sewed  on,  or  pulled  off  with  pinchers 
if  nailed  on.  That  part  of  the  sole  remaining  on  the  shank 
should  be  skived,  Fig.  15,  so  that  it  tapers  gradually.  In  case 
the  shoe  is  so  badly  worn  that  a  hole  appears  in  the  inner  sole, 
a  thin  piece  of  leather  or  tarred  felt,  cut  and  skived  to  shape, 
should  be  set  in  so  that  the  inner  sole  is  of  equal  thickness 
throughout.  A  piece  of  sole  leather  of  the  proper  thickness  and 
shape,  which  has  been  previously  prepared  and  moulded,  is  se- 
lected and  the  shank  end  on  the  cupped  side  skived  to  a  taper 
which  will  lap  over  the  taper  on  the  shank.  This  must  be  skived 
to' a  neat  edge  but  not  too  thin  or  the  nails  placed  in  it  will  not 
hold.  The  place  where  these  skived  pieces  overlap  is  called  the 
graft.  The  dust  on  the  bottom  of  the  shoe  should  be  wiped  off 
with  a  damp  cloth  or  brush.  . 


HALF  SOLING 


247 


Cut  at  an  ano/e 


fig.  14 


-Welt 


Lon^oa  the  outride 


Fia-15 


S. 


Fig.  16 


The  sole  properly  skived,  is  next  held  in  place  over  the  shoe 
which  should  be  on  the  stand  and  a  row  of  clinch  nails  driven  in 
across  the  graft.  These  nails  vary  in  size  from  3-8  to  4^2-8  for 
women's  shoes  to  4^2-8.  to  7-8  for  men's  shoes.  The  bottom 
part  of  the  shoe  must  be  held  tightly  against  the  iron  last  or  the 
pounding  will  drive  it  out  of  shape  and  the  nails  will  not  clinch. 
A  nail  should  next  be  driven  into  the  middle  of  the  sole  near  the 
toe.  This  will  hold  the  sole  against  the  shoe  while  it  is  being 
trimmed.  In  trimming  the  sole  one  should  carefully  control  the 
knife  so  that  it  will  not  cut  into  the  middle  sole,  welt  or  upper. 
The  little  curved  lip  on  the  lip  knife  is  designed  to  protect  the 
upper  part  of  the  shoe  while  the  sole  is  being  trimmed.  The  sole 
should  be  trimmed  about  TV'  larger  than  the  old  sole  to 
allow  for  rasping  to  final  shape.  After  the  sole  is  trimmed,  a 
guide  line  for  the  nails  should  be  scored  parallel  to  the  edge. 
Fig.  16  shows  a  quick  method  of  scoring  this  line,  which  should 
be  about  34"  from  the  edge.  The  sole  is  securely  nailed  on 
with  clinch  nails  placed  about  ^"  apart  on  the  guide  line. 
After  all  nails  are  in,  the  whole  row  should  be  gone  over  with 
the  hammer  to  make  sure  that  all  are  completely  pounded  in, 
and  clinched  on  the  inside.  The  shoe  should  be  removed  from 
the  last  and  the  inside  examined  with  the  hand  to  see  that  no 
nail  points  protrude.  The  edge  is  next  rasped  to  shape  and 
smoothed  with  No.  1^2  sandpaper.  The  edge  should  then  be 
wet  with  a  sponge  and  "set  up"  by  rubbing  a  warm  burnisher 
back  and  forth  over  it.  Ink  is  then  applied  and  wherf  it  is  al- 
most dry  the  warm  burnisher  is  again  rubbed  over  it  until  a 
high  polish  is  secured.  The  bottom  is  then  rasped  to  make  sure 
that  no  nail  heads  protrude,  and  the  sole  sandpapered  to  give  a 
smooth,  clean  surface.  This  final  rasping  and  sandpapering 
should  not  be  attempted  until  the  leather  sole  is  thoroughly  dry. 

Sewing  on  a  half  sole  is  much  more  difficult  but  the  finished 
results  are  much  neater.  Very  strong  flax  thread  prepared  or 
made  into  "ends"  is  used  for  sewing  shoes.  These  ends  are  heav •• 


248 


SHOE  REPAIRING 


Fig.  17 


Fig.  18 
Fig.  19 


ily  waxed  to  give  additional  strength.  Instead  of  a  needle  a  long 
hog  bristle  is  used  and  since  it  does  not  contain  an  eye  for  the 
thread  it  must  be  attached  in  a  different  way.  This  preparing  of 
the  thread  and  attaching  the  bristle  is  called  "making  a  waxed 
end."  The  bristles  used  are  about  4"  long.  They  have  the 
advantage  over  a  needle  in  that  they  will  not  break  and  at  the 
same  time  they  are  very  small.  Before  they  can  be  inserted 
through  the  leather,  a  hole  equal  in  size  to  the  bristle  must  be 
made  through  the  leather  with  a  sewing  awl.  The  stitch  used  in 
sewing  leather  is  quite  different  from  that  used  in  sewing  cloth. 
In  sewing  leather  a  bristle  is  fastened  to  each  end  of  the  thread. 

To  make  a  waxed  end,  which  should  consist  of  from  three 
to  eleven  strands  of  flax,  a  piece  of  the  correct  length  should 
be  broken  off  (not  cut).  Since  flax  shoe  thread  is  twisted  the 
fibers  in  it  so  overlap  and  hold  each  other  together  that  it  makes 
a  very  strong  strand  which  is  very  hard  to  break.  This,  how- 
ever, can  be  overcome  by  holding  tightly  with  the  left  hand  that 
part  of  the  thread  which  is  to  be  broken  off  at  the  point  where 
it  is  desired  to  break  it.  With  the  right  hand  over  that  part  at- 
tached to  the  ball,  rolling  it  forward  over  the  knee  as  in  Fig.  17, 
the  fibers  separate  and  a  quick  jerk  will  break  the  thread.  It 
should  be  pulled  apart  gradually  so  that  the  end  will  taper  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  fibers  do  not  all  break  at  the  same  place. 

Several  of  the  threads  of  the  same  length  should  be  put 
together,  the  number  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  thread 
needed,  laying  one  just  back  of  the  other  as  in  Fig.  18,  so  that 
the  ends  when  twisted  together  will  make  a  very  fine  point. 
They  are  twisted  together  in  a  very  peculiar  way.  The  group 
of  threads  is  separated  for  a  distance  of  about  6"  back  from 
the  end  as  at  Fig.  19,  the  two  parts  being  as  nearly  equal 
as  possible.  This  divided  end  is  placed  upon  the  knee  and  given 
a  short  reverse  twist  with  the  hand  as  when  breaking  the  flax. 
This  gives  the  fibers  in  each  part  of  the  divided  end  an  indepen- 
dent twist.  When  they  have  been  twisted  to  the  dividing  point 


SEWING 


249 


Fig.22 


in  this  direction,  the  motion  is  reversed  and  the  threads  twisted 
in  the  opposite  direction,  thus  bringing  the  two  parts  into  one 
and  forming  a  gradual  taper.  The  thread  being  twisted  two 
ways  makes  it  very  difficult  to  snarl  or  twist  it  when  -in  use. 
The  other  end  of  the  thread  should  be  prepared  in  the  same 
way.  After  the  strands  are  twisted  tightly  together,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  waxed  by  holding  a  piece  of  shoemaker's  wax  in 
the  right  hand  and  drawing  the  thread  over  it  with  the  left  hand, 
starting  near  the  middle  of  the  thread  and  pulling  toward  the 
end. 

The  bristles  are  next  attached.  The  split  end  must  be  se- 
lected as  the  one  to  be  fastened  to  the  thread.  While  holding 
the  blunt  end  of  the  bristle  in  the  left  hand,  the  other  end  should 
be  waxed  as  when  waxing  the  thread,  applying  the  wax  to 
within  an  inch  of  the  head  or  blunt  end  of  the  bristle. 

With  the  bristle  between  the  first  finger  and  thumb  as  in 
Fig.  20,  the  pointed  end  of  the  thread  is  wound  over  the  bristle 
toward  the  blunt  end  for  several  wrappings  and  the  bristle  is 
then  twisted  in  the  fingers  so  that  the  thread  rolls  tightly  onto 
the  bristle  in  a  reverse  direction  as  in  Fig.  21.  To  insure  this 
making  a  gradual  taper,  the  fingers  are  held  over  the  thread  while 
the  bristle  is  being  twisted.  A  hole  is  then  made  through  the 
thread  about  an  inch  from  the  thread  or  split  end  of  the  bristle 
and  the  blunt  end  of  the  brittle  is  bent  around  and  inserted 
through  the  hole  as  shown  in  Fig.  22  and  pulled  tight,  Fig.  23. 
Any  loose  ends  of  thread  or  bristle  should  be  trimmed  away. 
When  the  other  end  has  been  finished  in  a  similar  manner  the 
"waxed  end"  is  complete. 

In  sewing  on  a  shoe  sole,  the  old  sole  is  removed  as  already 
described.  The  new  sole  is  prepared  and  nailed  on  at  the  lap 
or  graft,  the  middle  nail  is  slip  tacked  (tacked  in  part  way  to  hold 
the  sole  in  place)  and  the  sole  trimmed  to  shape  but  slightly 
larger  than  the  welt.  If  the  stitches  are  allowed  to  come  through 
on  the  under  side  of  the  sole,  they  will  wear  in  two  and  let  the 


250 


SHOE  REPAIRING 


Fig.Z4 


Cork 


Channel  open  • 


Fig.  25 


-Thnod 


Aw/, 


-bristles 


Fig.26 


Channel  closed- 


sole  come  apart.  Therefore,  a  channel  must  be  cut  in  the  out- 
side part  of  the  sole,  in  which  the  stitches  can  be  imbedded. 
The  bottom  of  this  channel  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble under  the  old  stitches  in  the  welt  in  order  to  insure  the  shoe 
being  the  same  size  after  it  is  repaired.  The  location  of  the 
channel  is  made  by  gauging  a  line  around  the  edge.  The  chan- 
nel, Fig.  24,  is  cut  and  laid  back  with  a  knife  held  at  a  slant,  the 
cut  being  deep  enough  to  make  room  for  the  threads. 

The  shoe  is  placed  on  its  side  over  the  knee  and  held  in  this 
position  with  a  strap  which  is  passed  around  the  shank  of  the 
shoe  and  down  under  the  foot  of  the  workman.  The  upper  side 
of  the  welt  should  be  thoroughly  wet  with  an  old  tooth  brush. 
The  sewing  should  start  where  the  new  sole  overlaps  the  shank. 
A  sewing  awl,  having  a  point  slightly  smaller  than  twice  the 
thickness  of  the  thread  being  used,  is  selected  and  a  hole  made 
through  an  old  stitch  hole  in  the  welt,  Fig.  25,  and  on  through 
the  sole  into  the  channel.  This  awl  hole  must  be  large  enough 
to  allow  the  two  bristles  to  pass  through  it  at  the  same  time,  but 
small  enough  that  the  threads  will  bind  slightJy.  Sometimes  a 
curved  sewing  awl  is  needed  and  sometimes  a  straight  one  is 
better.  After  a  hole  is  made  through  the  leather,  one  end  of 
the  thread  is  inserted  and  drawn  through  to  the  middle  of  the 
thread.  The  next  hole  is  made  about  TV'  from  the  first  and 
both  ends  of  the  thread  inserted  from  opposite  sides,  to  about 
half  the  length  of  the  bristle.  With  a  bristle  in  each  hand,  the 
threads  are  pulled  briskly  through  the  hole.  It  is  best  to  pull 
the  entire  length  of  the  thread  through  until  the  stitch  is  made 
because  the  thread  is  larger  than  the  hole  and  if  it  is  allowed 
to  stop  before  the  stitch  is  completed,  it  will  be  hard  to  start 
again.  The  thread  must  be  pulled  tight  so  that  the  stitch  is 
snug  against  the  welt  on  the  top  and  deep  in  the  bed  of  the  chan- 
nel on  the  under  side,  Fig.  26.  Succeeding  stitches  are  made  in 
the  same  way.  After  the  sewing  is  completed,  the  channel  is 
rubbed  shut.  The  leather  must  be  quite  moist  so  that  the  chan- 
nel cover  will  bend  back  into  shape.  The  shoe  is  then  allowed 


PATCHING 


251 


Fig.  27 


Fig.  26 


Fig- 29 


to  dry  and  the  middle  tack  pulled  out.  The  sole  is  trimmed  to 
shape  and  rasped  smooth  and  the  edge  sandpapered.  The  edge 
is  then  "set  up,"  inked  and  burnished  until  it  is  slick  and  bright. 

Patching  can  be  done  in  two  ways,  by  cementing  and  by 
sewing.  The  cement  patch  looks  much  neater  but  in  places 
where  the  parts  are  subjected  to  any  great  strain,  the  sewed 
patch  is  necessary. 

The  shoe  must  be  placed  on  a  stretcher,  Fig.  3,  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned  at  the  place  where  the  patch  is  to  be  applied, 
first  by  washing  to  remove  all  traces  of  shoe  polish  and  grease 
and  then  by  sandpapering  it  to  roughen  the  surface  so  that  the 
patch  can  stick.  Unusual  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
surface  of  the  shoe  is  not  sandpapered  beyond  the  limit  of  the 
patch.  A  piece  of  thin  leather  of  the  same  color  and  texture  as 
the  shoe,  is  selected  and  a  portion  large  enough  for  the  patch, 
cut  out.  Square  corners  should  be  avoided  in  a  patch,  the  round 
or  elliptical  patch  being  much  easier  to  apply. 

The  wrong  side  of  the  patch  is  skived  all  around  to  an  edge 
of  paper  thickness.  An  even  coat  of  leather  cement  is  then 
applied  to  both  patch  and  shoe  and  allowed  to  dry  until  it  begins 
to  turn  white.  Both  the  patch  and  the  shoes  are  then  warmed  to 
an  even  temperature  and  placed  in  position  and  rubbed  to  a 
close  contact  at  all  points.  After  the  patch  has  thoroughly  dried, 
the  stretcher  is  removed.  If  the  leather  was  carefully  matched 
and  the  leather  skived  thin  enough,  a  patch  of  this  kind  is  hardly 
noticeable,  Fig.  27. 

If  the  shoe  upper  is  torn  loose  from  the  welt,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  sew  a  patch  on.  Fig.  28  shows  how  this  should  be 
sewed  to  the  upper  and  to  the  welt.  The  patch  cannot  be  skived 
as  thin  as  for  a  cement  patch  because  the  stitches  will  pull 
through.  In  sewing  to  the  welt  the  stitches  are  placed  far 
back  on  the  welt  so  that  the  patch  will  take  the  shape  of  the 
upper.  A  patch  of  this  kind  should  be  sewed  on  the  upper  first. 

A  rip  in  the  vamp  may  be  repaired  by  placing  a  patch  un- 
derneath and  sewing  through  it  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  29. 


252 

ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

Electricity  is  one  of  the  greatest  forms  of  energy  yet  dis- 
covered. It  has  not  yet  been  determined  what  it  really  is  but 
men  have  devised  ways  of  using  it.  It  is  an  invisible  something 
but  the  results  of  its  power  can  'be  seen  around  us  everywhere, 
from  the  simple  door  bell  or  buzzer  to  the  complex  telephone 
or  telegraph  instrument,  the  electric  light,  the  electric  stove,  the 
X-ray,  the  wireless  and  the  powerful  motor  moving  all  sorts  of 
machines,  elevators,  boats,  street  cars,  etc.  We  could  not  have 
the  automobile  or  the  flying  machine  of  today  if  it  were  not  for 
the  control  of  the  electric  spark  which  ignites  the  gas  in  the 
engine  at  just  the  proper  time. 

There  must  be  a  source  of  supply  for  electric  energy. 
Nature  generates  electricity  in  the  moving  clouds  and  we  see 
the  results  of  it  in  the  lightning.  By  rubbing  a  glass  tube  with 
a  piece  of  silk,  or  rubbing  a  piece  of  sealing  wax  with  a  woolen 
cloth,  the  tube  or  wax  will  become  electrified. 

Electricity  is  produced  for  commercial  purposes  by  means  of 
cells  or  mechanical  generators.  There  are  two  types  of  primary 
cells  known  as  the  closed  circuit  and  the  open  circuit,  the  dry 
cell  being  the  most  common  of  the  open  circuit  type.  They  both 
produce  the  same  kind  of  electricity  but  open  circuit  cells  become 
dead  (or  polarized)  if  put  into  continuous  service,  while  the 
gravity  type  must  have  the  continuous  service  to  keep  it  from 
getting  out  of  order.  Electricity  produced  by  a  mechanical  gen- 
erator can  be  used  direct  from  the  generator  or  it  can  be  used  to 
store  up  energy  for  future  use  in  a  storage  battery. 

No  matter  what  kind  of  supply  it  is,  electricity  always  tries 
to  get  away  and  run  into  the  ground.  Its  power  is  peculiar  in 
that  it  moves  only  through  certain  objects  while  others  repel  it. 
Ordinarily  it  is  carried  from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  used,  through  a  solid  wire,  usually  a  copper 
wire.  Just  how  it  moves  has  not  been  determined.  Some 
authorities  even  believe  that  it  travels  in  the  space  around  the 
wire  instead  of  in  the  wire  itself.  This  seems  possible  because 
of  the  discovery  of  the  wireless  telegraph  and  telephone,  for 
which  no  wires  are  used. 

The  movement  of  electric  energy  is  known  as  current  and 
it  is  said  to  flow  when  it  moves.  Current  may  be  made  to  flow 
from  a  cell,  generator  or  battery,  when  the  wire  coming  from 
the  source  of  supply  is  attached  to  the  ground  or  to  some 
metallic  substance  which  is  connected  with  the  ground  or  to  the 
negative  terminal  of  the  battery  or  generator.  This  makes  what 
is  known  as  a  circuit  and  allows  the  current  to  flow  in  the  direc- 


ELECTRICITY  253 

tion  it  desires.  It  always  seeks  the  shortest  route  to  the  ground 
or  to  the  negative  terminal  of  the  battery.  To  prevent  current 
from  getting  away  before  the  desired  destination  is  reached,  the 
wire  is  sometimes  covered  with  such  materials  as  thread  and 
paraffine,  rubber,  woven  braid  and  weather  proof  compound. 
Wire  covered  in  this  way  is  known  as  insulated  wire,  Fig.  1. 
If  current  is  to  be  carried  through  space  where  interference  is 
not  likely  to  occur,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  insulated  wire,  but 
it  is  necessary  to  insulate  the  connections  at  the  places  where 
the  wire  is  fastened.  Dry  wood  is  a  non-conductor  of  electric 
current  and  a  wire  nailed  to  a  dry  wooden  post  would  not  be 
short  circuited  (the  current  shunted  to  the  ground  before  the 
desired  place  is  reached),  but  water  is  a  conductor  (distilled 
water  excepted)  and  if  rain  should  fall,  the  post  would  be  so 
rilled  with  moisture  that  the  current  would  flow  through  it.  Glass 
or  porcelain  holders  are  used  to  insulate  the  wire  from  the  pole. 

In  the  cell,  generator  or  battery,  there  are  two  terminals. 
One  is  where  the  electricity  comes  out  and  is  known  as  the  posi- 
tive terminal.  The  other,  where  the  current  returns,  is  known 
as  the  negative  terminal.  In  case  a  wire  is  run  out  from  the 
positive  terminal  and  instead  of  being  connected  to  the  ground, 
is  connected  to  the  negative  terminal,  it  makes  the  circuit  and 
the  current  will  flow.  For  this  reason  the  negative  side  of  the  cell, 
generator  or  battery  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "ground." 

The  wire  or  any  other  material  through  which  the  current 
will  flow  is  known  as  a  conductor.  The  smaller  the  conductor 
the  harder  the  electric  current  has  to  work  to  get  to  its  destina- 
tion, just  as  water  in  a  creek  is  swift  and  turbulent  when  it 
passes  through  a  narrow  channel  and  slow  moving  and  peaceful 
when  its  creek  bed  is  wide  and  deep.  This  smallness  of  the 
conductor  is  said  to  offer  resistance  to  a  current  passing  through 
it  and  because  of  the  extra  energy  used  in  forcing  itself  through, 
the  current  generates  heat  just  as  a  person,  by  performing  stren- 
uous work,'  becomes  overheated.  It  is  this  idea  of  resistance 
that  is  used  in  the  electric  devices  producing  heat,  such  as  the 
toaster,  flat  iron,  hot  plate  or  stove,  curling  iron,  glue  pot,  etc. 
In  these  devices,  a  material  which  offers  great  resistance  but 
which  will  carry  the  current,  is  used  as  a  conductor  and  when 
the  current  is  allowed  to  pass  through  it,  the  conductor  becomes 
hot.  This  same  principle  is  applied  to  the  incandescent  light. 
A  very  fine  filament  of  carbon  or  tungsten  metal  can  be  seen  in 
the  bulb.  It  looks  black  but  when  the  electric  current  is  allowed 
to  pass  through  it,  it  instantly  becomes  very  hot,  almost  a  white 
heat,  and  as  a  result  gives  off  light.  When  metal  is  heated  to 


254        ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  1 


Light  wire 


Tine 


Mre' 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


a  white  heat  in  the  open  air,  it  melts  and  flows.  To  prevent 
this  filament  from  melting  or  burning  in  two,  all  of  the  air  is 
drawn  out  of  the  bulb,  thus  forming  a  vacuum,  and  the  end  of 
the  bulb  tightly  sealed. 

There  is  another  form  of  energy  which  is  not  the  same  as 
electric  current.  It  is  known  as  magnetic  force.  Instead  of 
flowing  through  a  wire,  or  some  other  form  of  conductor,  mag- 
netic force  goes  out  unseen  through  the  air.  That  point  or  place 
from  which  it  comes  is  known  as  a  pole.  Fig.  2  shows  a  bar 
of  steel  which  has  been  magnetized,  and  lines  indicating  the 
direction  in  which  the  magnetic  force  is  moving. 

This  magnetic  force  is  limited  and  reaches  out  only  to  a 
limited  distance.  The  more  powerful  the  magnet  the  greater 
the  "field"  its  force  will  cover.  Anything  possessing  this  mag- 
netic force  tends  to  draw  to  it  anything  made  of  steel,  iron  or 
nickel.  The  opposite  ends  of  a  magnet  are  known  as  north  and 
south  poles.  Fig.  3  shows  a  horseshoe  magnet.  This  is  the 
same  as  the  bar  magnet  except  that  it  is  bent  around  so  that 
the  poles  are  near  each  other.  Either  end  of  the  bar  magnet 
will  attract  a  nail,  tack,  knife  blade  or  any  piece  of  steel  but 
because  of  their  positions,  not  at  the  same  time,  while  in  the 
horseshoe  magnet,  both  ends  being  near  each  other,  attract  in 
unison  and  consequently  have  greater  pulling  power.  Magnets 
will  also  attract  each  other  if  unlike  poles  are  brought  close 
together,  but  two  like  poles  will  repel  each  other  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  Once  a  piece  of  steel  is  pulled  against  a  magnet,  it  is 
difficult  to  pull  it  away.  In  a  magnet  there  is  great  power,  but 
in  order  to  utilize  the  power,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  other 
force  working  in  conjunction  with  it  or  there  is  only  one  move- 
ment, that  of  pulling  something  to  the  magnet. 

It  will  be  found  by  experimenting  that  steel  can  be  perma- 
nently magnetized,  that  is,  so  filled  with  magnetism  that  it  will 
remain  magnetized  indefinitely.  An  experiment  to  prove  this 


BELL  WIRING 


255 


Fig.  4 


p™3s 


Direction  of 
current 


can  easily  be  made  by  rubbing  a  small  piece  of  steel  very  slowly 
over  the  end  of  a  magnet.  This  rubbing  should  be  in  one  direc- 
tion, that  in  which  the  magnetic  force  moves.  If  the  same  ex- 
periment is  tried  with  a  bit  of  iron  or  iron  wire  (hay  baling 
wire),  it  will  be  found  that  the  wire  does  not  become  mag- 
netized. However,  if  a  group  of  these  same  iron  wires  are  made 
into  a  bundle,  an  insulated  copper  wire  wound  around  them  as 
in  Fig.  5,  and  an  electric  current  made  to  pass  through  the  cop- 
per wire,  the  iron  wires  become  magnetized,  but  only  for  the 
period  during  which  the  electric  current  is  passing  around  them 
through  the  insulated  copper  wire.  A  magnet  thus  produced 
is  known  as  an  electro  magnet  and  its  use  makes  possible  the 
door  bell,  buzzer,  telephone,  telegraph  and  wireless. 


BELL  WIRING 

Fig.  6  shows  a  drawing  of  an  electric  bell  (with  cap  re- 
moved) having  two  electro  magnets.  The  binding  posts  are  the 
places  to  which  the  wires  are  attached,  +  in  the  illustration 
indicating  positive  or  where  the  current  goes  in  and  —  indi- 
cating the  negative  or  where  the  current  comes  out.  When  the 
current  goes  in  at  the  -f-  terminal  (binding  post),  it  goes  around 
and  around  the  soft  iron  core  of  the  first  magnet,  then  around 
the  second  magnet  and  then  to  the  contact  point.  The  armature 
spring  pulls  back  the  iron  armature  so  that  contact  is  made 
between  the  set  screw  and  the  contact  spring.  From  there  the 
current  flows  out  through  the  —  terminal.  When  the  current 
is  turned  on,  the  magnetic  force  set  up  in  the  soft  iron  cores  of 
the  two  coils,  pulls  the  armature  over  to  the  magnet  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  the  horseshoe  magnet  pulls  an  iron  plate,  but 
in  the  bell  the  instant  this  armature  is  pulled  against  the  mag- 
net, the  electric  current  is  broken  at  the  contact  point.  With 
the  current  cut  off,  the  cores  cease  to  be  magnets  and  they  fail 
to  hold  the  armature  against  them.  When  this  magnetic  pull 


256       ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  6 


Homrne, 

Contactpoint 
Setscrew- 

Contact 
Armature 
Armature 
bindingpost 


Fig- 7 


Fig.  8 


is  gone,  the  spring  pulls  the  armature  back  into  the  original 
position  and  as  soon  as  it  reaches  this  original  position,  the  elec- 
tric connection  is  again  made,  the  cores  again  become  mag- 
netized, the  armature  is  again  pulled  over  and  again  the  current 
is  broken.  This  of  course  takes  place  very  quickly,  perhaps 
hundreds  of  times  per  minute,  and  because  the  hammer  rod  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  armature,  the  result  is  that  the  ham- 
mer moves  back  and  forth  against  the  bell.  The  dotted  line  in 
Fig.  6  shows  the  course  of  the  electric  current.  A  buzzer,  Fig. 
7,  is  similar  to  a  bell,  the  chief  difference  being  that  the  noise  is 
made  by  the  vibration  or  movement  of  its  parts  instead  of  by  a 
hammer  striking  a  bell. 

To  install  a  door  bell  in  a  house,  one  must  have  an  electric 
bell,  one  or  two  cells,  (preferably  dry  cells  as  they  are  less  apt 
to  get  out  of  order),  a  push  button  for  making  the  electric  con- 
nection at  the  door,  and  enough  No.  18  insulated  bell  wire  to 
reach  from  the  door  to  the  battery  and  to  the  bell-:  also  enough 
wire  staples,  preferably  those  which  are  insulated,  to  securely 
fasten  the  wires  at  intervals  of  every  two  feet. 

The  cells  should  be  placed  on  some  shelf  where  they  will  be. 
out  of  the  way.  If  the  basement  under  the  house  is  not  too 
damp  or  too  hot,  they  may  be  placed  on  a  shelf  made  by  nailing 
a  board  to  the  under  side  of  the  joists  under  the  floor  near  the 
point  where  the  bell  is  to  be  placed,  thus  saving  in  the  amount 
of  wire  needed.  If  two  cells  are  used  they  should  be  connected 
with  a  short  piece  of  wire,  with  one  end  of  the  wire  connected 
to  the  positive  or  carbon  terminal  of  one  cell  and  the  other  end 
to  the  negative  or  zinc  terminal  of  the  other  cell.  The  end  of 
a  piece  of  wire  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  battery  to  the  bell 
should  then  be  connected  to  the  remaining  terminal  of  one  cell, 
while  an  end  of  another  wire  long  enough  to  reach  to  the  door 
where  the  push  button  is  to  be  installed,  is  fastened  to  the 
unused  terminal  on  the  other  cell.  These  wires,  after  being 


BELL  WIRING 


257 


Fig.  9 


Fig.  11 


V/ire 


securely  fastened  to  the  cells,  are  fastened  with  staples  to  the 
joists  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  If  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  wires 
to  the  other  side  of  the  joist,  this  may  be  done  by  drawing  them 
through  a  hole  bored  through  the  joist,  or  they  may  be  carried 
around  the  joist  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  Fig.  8. 

The  bell  should  be  fastened  to  the  wall  with  screws.  If 
placed  on  a  plastered  wall  it  will  be  more  secure  if  part  of  these 
screws  penetrate  one  of  the  studs,  the  2"x4"  uprights,  to  which 
the  laths  in  a  frame  house  are  nailed.  The  studs  are  always 
16"  apart  from  center  to  center  and  their  location  can  be  deter- 
mined by  sound,  when  tapping  a  hammer  lightly  over  the  wall 
in  the  proposed  location  of  the  bell.  The  spot  over  the  stud 
gives  off  a  more  solid,  higher  pitched  sound.  If  the  visible  wires 
are  not  objectionable  they  may  be  tacked  along  the  edge  of  the 
window  casing,  base  board  or  picture  molding.  If  the  wires  of 
the  bell  are  to  be  hidden,  they  must  be  "fished"  through  the 
hollow  wall.  This  of  course  makes  a  neater  job.  In  order  to 
get  the  wire  through  the  wall,  a  y\"  hole  should  be  bored  just 
under  the  bell,  but  far  enough  to  the  side  to  miss  the  stud;  in 
other  words,  this  hole  must  be  an  opening  into  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  studs  which  run  from  the  point  where  the  bell 
is  located  to  the  basement,  if  that  is  where  the  battery  has  been 
placed,  or  to  the  attic  if  the  battery  is  there.  Sometimes  the 
battery  can  be  placed  on  a  shelf  in  a  closet  near  the  bell  in  which 
case  the  wires  can  be  carried  around  the  picture  molding  or 
perhaps  through  the  wall.  If  the  wires  are  to  be  fished,  the 
loose  end  of  a  wire  or  a  small  chain  long  enough  to  reach  to 
the  basement  (assuming  that  to  be  the  location  of  the  battery), 
is  shoved  through  the  hole  beside  the  bell,  Fig.  9.  One  can 
usually  tell  by  the  feeling  of  the  wire  or  chain  whether  it  is 
going  down  or  whether  some  obstruction  is  stopping  it.  Wheij 
enough  of  it  has  been  shoved  into  the  wall  to  reach  the  base- 
ment, a  helper  should  be  there  to  see  if  it  is  coming  through. 


258       ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  12 


Push  button 


fig.  13 


Wires  crossing 


Fig.  15 


By  listening  carefully  while  it  is  moved  back  and  forth  by  the 
upstairs  workman,  the  one  in  the  basement  can  tell  what 
progress  is  being  made. 

If  the  space  below  the  bell  is  boarded  over  so  that  the  wire 
or  chain  cannot  be  reached,  a  hole  should  be  bored  through  the 
obstruction  with  a  1"  auger  bit.  By  making  a  hook  of  a  stiff 
wire  and  pushing  it  upward  through  this  hole,  it  is  possible  to 
engage  the  end  of  the  wire  or  chain  pushed  down  from  above, 
and  pull  it  through,  Fig.  10.  Sometimes  in  partition  walls  the 
studs  are  set  up  and  nailed  on  the  floor  after  it  is  laid.  In  that 
case  it  may  be  impossible  to  fish  the  wire  all  the  way.  If  it  is 
found  to  be  impossible  to  get  the  wire  through  the  floor,  the  wire 
may  be  fished  out  through  a  hole  slightly  above  the  base  board 
and  then  sent  down  through  a  hole  in  the  floor  as  in  Fig.  11. 

Once  the  wire  is  fished  through,  the  ends  of  two  insulated 
wires  are  fastened  securely  to  it  and  pulled  back  through  the 
wall  to  the  bell.  One  of  these  wires  should  be  the  end  of  that 
wire  which  is  to  be  attached  to  the  battery  and  the  other  must 
be  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  bell  to  the  push  button.  The 
insulation  is  scraped  off  of  both  the  ends  of  wire  and  the  wire 
which  comes  from  the  battery  is  fastened  to  one  terminal  of  the 
bell  and  the  other  wire  is  fastened  to  the  other  terminal  of  the  bell. 

The  wires  for  the  push  button  at  the  door  are  fished  through 
a  hole  directly  underneath  the  push  button.  The  push  button 
is  usually  30"  from  the  floor.  The  hole  should  be  small  enough 
that  the  push  button  will  cover  it.  One  wire  should  come  from 
the  bell  to  the  push  button  and  the  other  from  the  battery  to  the 
push  button.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  all  connections 
are  made  tight,  that  the  wire  is  properly  fastened  and  that  all 
slack  has  been  taken  up.  If  the  bell  fails  to  ring  when  the  but- 
ton is  pushed,  all  connections  should  be  inspected  to  see  that 
none  of  the  wires  are  grounded,  that  is,  touching  any  object 
which  would  conduct  the  current  to  the  ground  and  thus  cause 


TELEGRAPH  CIRCUITS 


259 


Fig.  16 


Fig.  17 


G?//  or  battery 

(gravity  Type) 


the  current  to   run   out  of  the  battery  into  the  ground.     This 
would  soon  exhaust  the  battery. 

A  diagram  of  a  bell  wired  in  this  manner  is  shown  in  Fig. 
12.  This  is  easily  read  but  when  a  different  arrangement,  such 
as  Fig.  13  is  made,  it  looks  more  complicated  but  is  really  the 
same  kind  of  circuit.  To  read  a  "wiring  layout"  one  should 
start  at  the  positive  terminal  of  the  battery  and  follow  the  cir- 
cuit around  to  see  that  it  is  complete,  that  it  connects  at  the 
right  places  and  that  it  returns  to  the  negative  terminal  of  the 
battery.  The  solid  lines  in  Fig.  14  show  a  bell  wired  so  that  it 
can  be  rung  from  either  of  two  buttons.  The  dotted  line  shows 
a  push  button  incorrectly  wired.  Pushing  the  button  on  the 
dotted  line  circuit  would  only  close  the  circuit  between  the  but- 
ton and  the  battery  without  going  through  the  bell,  while  either 
of  the  other  two  buttons  on  this  diagram  will  close  a  circuit 
through  the  bell.  Fig.  15  shows  how  to  wire  two  bells  so  that 
they  both  ring  when  either  of  the  two  buttons  are  pushed.  This 
kind  of  an  arrangement  is  suitable  where  one  bell  is  desired 
down  stairs  and  one  up  stairs,  or  where  one  bell  is  in  the  house 
and  the  other  bell  in  the  barn  or  garage. 

TELEGRAPH  CIRCUITS 

A  different  type  of  battery  known  as  the  gravity  or  closed 
circuit  type,  C-Fig.  17,  must  be  used  in  telegraph  circuits  which 
are  used  continuously.  The  open  circuit  type  loses  its  power 
when  used  continuously.  The  receiving  instrument  or  sounder 
works  on  the  same  principle  as  the  bell.  It  has  two  electro 
magnets.  The  current  is  turned  on  by  pushing  on  the  knob  of 
the  transmitter,  sometimes  called  the  key.  Pushing  on  this  key 
closes  the  circuit.  This  allows  the  magnets  in  the  sounder  to 
draw  down  the  metal  bar  (or  armature)  causing  a  click  to  be 
made  at  the  sounding  point  A-Fig.  16.  When  the  current  is 
turned  off,  a  little  coil  spring  pulls  the  armature  back  to  the 
original  position  and  causes  a  click  to  be  made  at  the  second 


260       ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


sounding  point,  B.  It  is  the  length  of  time  between  the  clicks 
made  when  the  key  is  pushed  down  and  when  it  is  released,  that 
is  known  as  an  "element."  A  short  element  or  interval  between 
clicks  is  known  as  a  dot;  a  long  interval  as  a  dash.  By  a  com- 
bination of  dots  and  dashes,  letters  are  represented  and  words 
can  be  spelled  out.  The  symbols  made  by  groups  of  these  ele- 
ments (dots  and  dashes)  are  known  as  a  code.  The  following 
table  gives  the  Morse  and  the  International  codes. 

International      Morse  International      Morse  International      Morse 

A._  -  .  N  _  .  .  ____  !.__. 

..  ___  2  .    .  _  .    . 

_  _  3  .  .  .  _  . 

_  .....  _  4  .    .    .    .  _ 
.  .....  5   ..... 


.  .  .  B  _  .  . 
.  _  .  C  .  .  . 

D  -  .    . 

E  . 

.  _  .  F  .  _  . 
_  .  G  _  _  . 
.  .  .  H  .  .  . 

I    .    . 
J  _  .  _ 

K_  .  _ 
_  .    .   L  _ 

M_ 


_  O 

_  .  P 

.  -  Q 

.  R 

.  S  , 

T  . 

_  U 

.  _  V 

_  w 

.  _  X 

_  Y 

.  z 


;__ 

8  _ 


0 

( ). 

.-  ._  .-(,).- ._ 
. .  __ . .(?) 

The  telegraph  instruments  should  be  wired  as  in  the  illus- 
tration and  diagram,  Fig.  17.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  a  tele- 
graphic connection  with  some  one  at  a  distance,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  a  key  and  a  sounder  at  each  place  but  it  is  not  necessary 
to  have  two  pairs  of  wires,  in  fact  one  wire  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary, provided  it  is  connected  at  each  end  to  a  metal  plate  or 
pipe  which  is  run  into  the  ground.  In  a  long  circuit  there  is 
such  a  loss  of  current  that  the  magnets  in  the  coils  in  the 
sounder  are  not  strong  enough  to  hold  down  the  armature 
unless  a  very  large  number  of  cells  is  used.  This  difficulty  is 
overcome  by  wiring  the  circuit  with  relays  and  local  batteries. 
A  relay,  Fig.  19,  is  constructed  something  like  a  telegraph 
sounder,  but  the  coils  are  made  with  many  turns  of  much  finer 
wire,  thus  producing  a  much  stronger  magnetic  force.  In  this 


TELEGRAPH  CIRCUITS 


261 


Fig.  21 


Fig.  20. — 1- Wooden  base.  2-Wooden  bracket.  3-Wooden  bar.  4-Wire  or  brad. 
5* — Electro  magnets.  6-Iron  armature.  7-Iron  yoke.  8-Flat  head  wood  screws. 
9-Round  head  wood  screws  and  washers.  10-Brass  spring  or  rubber  band.  (9'  is  used 
as  a  binding  post). 

*  Detail  of  coil.  A-Bolt  or  soft  iron  wire :  must  be  the  latter  if  gravity  battery 
is  used.  B-Thin  paper  tube.  C-Consecutive  turns  of  No.  20  or  22  cotton  insulated 
wire.  D-Wood  or  fiber  ends. 

Fig.  21. — 1-Wooden  base.  2-Brass  or  tin  key  strip.  3-Metal  connector  plate. 
4-and  4'-Metal  switch  closed.  (Dotted  line  shows  switch  open).  5-Wooden  knob.  6-Flat 
head  wood  screw.  7-Round  head  wood  screw  and  washer.  (6'  and  7'  are  used  as 
binding  posts). 

way  a  weak  current  sent  through  the  coils  in  a  relay  will  draw 
down  an  armature  as  easily  as  a  strong  current  in  a  telegraph 
sounder.  The  wiring  diagram  at  Fig.  18  shows  a  circuit  in 
three  units.  When  the  key,  A,  is  closed,  the  electricity  passes 
from  the  battery,  B,  along  the  main  line  through  the  relays, 
C-C,  to  the  ground,  D,  at  the  other  end  of  the  line.  In  passing 
through  the  relays,  the  armatures  are  pulled  up  by  the  electro 
magnets,  closing  the  local  circuits.  When  the  current  in  the 
main  line  is  broken,  the  springs  on  the  relays  break  the  contact 
in  the  local  circuits,  cutting  off  the  current  from  the  sounders. 
Each  circuit  is  complete  in  itself,  that  is,  the  current  in  one  cir- 
cuit does  not  flow  into  another,  one  merely  operates  the  other. 
The  current  in  the  main  circuit  only  closes  the  connection  at 
the  relay  so  that  the  current  in  the  local  battery  (which  may 
consist  of  as  many  cells  as  needed  to  regulate  the  strength  of 
the  sound)  flows  through  the  sounder,  reproducing  the  sound 
made  by  the  key  at  the  sending  station.  The  switch  on  the 
key  must  be  kept  closed  when  the  line  is  not  in  use,  thus  enab- 
ling an  operator  at  either  end  of  the  line  to  open  the  circuit  for 
the  purpose  of  sending  messages. 

A  simple  form  of  key  and  sounder  which  can  be  made  with 
a  limited  equipment  is  shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21.  In  making  the 
coils  the  wires  should  be  wound  smoothly,  just  as  thread  is 
wound  on  a  spool.  Care  must  also  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
core  is  properly  insulated  with  paper  from  the  wires  wound 
around  it. 


262       ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  22 


Fig.  23 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR. 

As  has  been  stated,  one  cannot  see  the  flow  of  electric  cur- 
rent, but  results  from  electric  current  can  be  seen.  The  electric 
motor,  Fig.  22,  is  another  illustration  of  electric  motive  power. 
The  electro  magnet  is  again  the  moving  force.  A  simple  type 
of  motor  which  can  be  easily  made  and  which  thoroughly  illus- 
trates the  principle  on  which  the  larger  motor  works,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  24. 

In  this  simple  motor,  when  the  current  from  the  battery  is 
turned  on,  it  travels  around  the  iron  core  (5),  causing  it  to 
become  an  electro  magnet.  The  current  then  travels  through 
one  of  the  brushes  (1),  to  the  commutator  (2),  then  around  the 
armature  (3),  out  through  the  other  brush,  then  to  the  battery. 
When  the  armature  is  turned  to  a  certain  point,  the  brushes 
exchange  contact  with  the  metal  plates  on  the  commutator  and 
therefore  the  flow  of  current  is  reversed.  This  reverses  the 
polarity  of  the  armature  magnets.  In  this  way  alternate  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion  is  produced  between  the  armature  magnets 


Fig.  24 


Bg.25 


Fig.26 


Fig.  24. — 7- Wooden  base.  8-Wooden  coil  support.  6-Tin,  copper  or  brass  arma- 
ture support.  2-Commutator.  1-Brushes.  5-Field  magnet,  soft  iron.  4-Field  coils,  No. 
18  cotton  covered  wire.  9- Armature  magnets,  flat  head  wood  screws-.  3-Armature  coil, 
No.  22  cotton  covered  wire.  10-Cork.  ll-% "dowel  rod.  12-Pins. 


ELECTRIC  MOTORS 


263 


Fig.27 


Wood  molding 


and  field  magnets,  first  a  pull  and  then  a  push  being  given  to 
the  armature.  With  each  new  contact  between  the  brushes  and 
the  armature  plates,  magnetic  force  is  again  set  up  and  the  arm- 
ature is  given  another  pull,  only  to  have  the  pull  cut  off  by  the 
brushes.  It  is  this  chasing  game,  played  in  a  motor,  which 
makes  the  armature  revolve  continuously  as  long  as  the  switch 
is  closed  and  the  current  allowed  to  flow. 

In  making  a  motor  like  the  illustration,  the  field  magnet 
must  be  wound  so  that  one  end  becomes  a  north  pole  and  the 
other  one  a  south  pole.  The  armature  magnets  must  also  be 
wound  in  this  manner.  The  polarity  of  a  magnet  can  be  deter- 
mined by  grasping  the  coil  with  the  right  hand  so  that  the 
fingers  point  in  the  direction  of  the  current;  the  north  pole  will 
then  be  in  the  direction  of  the  extended  thumb  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  5.  The  plates  on  the  commutator  must  be  placed  so 
that  the  brushes  make  a  contact  when  the  armature  is  in  the 
position  shown  in  Fig.  26,  the  reason  being  that,  in  this  illus- 
tration, the  north  pole  in  the  armature  is  nearest  the  south  pole 


f        1 

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Fig.   32. — Three   electric  lights  in  multiple:   turn-off  switch   at   each  lamp. 
Example — lights  in  different  rooms  or  on  diffrent  parts  of  an  electrolier. 
Fig.   33. — Three   lights   in  multiple:    single  pole   switch   controlling  all   lights. 
Example — same  as  Fig.   32  except  that  all  lights  can  be  turned  on  or  off  from  one 
point,   provided   the   individual   switches  have   been  left   turned   on. 

Fig.   34. — Same  as  Fig.   33   except  that  switch   bridges   across  both   wires. 
Example — same   as    Fig.    32. 


264       ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  35 


Fig.  36 


IT 


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switch 


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Fig.  35. — Three-way  switch  control  (circuit  closed  in  above  diagram).  Turning 
either  switch  will  break  the  connection.  When  both  switch  bars  bridge  over  the  same 
wire,  the  current  is  turned  on. 

Example — light  at'  head  of  stairs  can  be  turned  on  or  off  either  from  the  switch 
down  stairs  or  the  one  up  stairs. 

Fig.   36. — Double   branch   circuit.     Switches   at  individual   lamps. 

Example — one    circuit   up    stairs    and   one    down. 

of  the  field  magnet,  making  the  pull  easier.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  like  poles  repell  each  other:  consequently  in  Fig.  25, 
even  though  one  pole  in  the  armature  is  near  a  pole  of  the  field 
magnet,  it  will  not  be  attracted  to  it  because  the  polarity  in  each 
is  the  same.  A  pulley  placed  on  the  end  of  the  armature  is  the 
means  of  using  the  power  developed  in  a  motor. 

ELECTRIC  GENERATOR. 

The  strength  of  a  battery  is  determined  by  a  measure  called 
a  volt.  The  ordinary  dry  cell,  when  new,  usually  tests  about 
1.5  volts.  A  1.5  volt  light  bulb  attached  to  a  cell  will  give  off 
light  equivalent  of  2  to  4  candle  power,  but  for  a  limited  length 
of  time  only.  Its  light  will  gradually  grow  weaker  and  weaker. 
The  light  bulb  usually  used  for  ordinary  lighting  purposes, 
requires  110  volts.  To  operate  one  of  these  bulbs,  it  would  take 
70  new  dry  cells,  connected  in  series,  and  then  the  bulb  would 
give  off  light  for  only  a  few  minutes.  When  current  is  needed 
in  great  quantities  and  for  continuous  use,  it  is  generated  in  a 
mechanical  way  rather  than  by  chemicals.  This  mechanical 
means  is  known  as  a  generator,  dynamo  or  magneto.  A  gen- 
erator is  practically  the  same  as  a  motor,  but  instead  of  being 
operated  by  an  electric  current  passing  through  it,  the  armature 
is  revolved  by  some  other  power,  and  as  this  is  done  a  current 
is  induced  in  the  armature  and  sent  out  through  the  brushes. 
While  it  is  true  that  the  magnets  are  only  electro  magnets, 
enough  magnetism  remains  in  the  magnets  of  a  well  constructed 
generator,  to  start  the  current  flowing.  Once  the  start  is  made, 
a  part  of  the  new  current  generated  passes  around  the  poles  of 
the  magnets  and  increases  their  magnetic  power  and  additional 
voltage  is  produced  and  current  is  sent  out  through  the  brushes 
or  commutator.  Fig.  23  shows  a  generator  capable  of  furnish- 


LIGHT  WIRING 


265 


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Fig.    37. — Double    branch    circuit. 

Example-^-Lights  A-B-C  and  D  down  stairs,  D  connected  with  wall  switch;  E-F 
and  G  upstairs  circuit,  G  controlled  by  two  three-way  switches,  one  at  top  and  the 
other  at  bottom  of  stairs.  (Latter  circuit  closed,  in  diagram). 

ing  sufficient  power  to  operate  electric  lights,  motors,  etc.  Of 
course  to  be  made  to  generate  electric  current,  the  armature 
must  be  revolved  rapidly.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by 
steam  or  water  power. 

LIGHT  WIRING. 

For  ordinary  house  wiring  for  electric  lights,  much  heavier 
wire  than  that  used  for  an  electric  bell,  known  as  B.  and  S.  No. 
14  insulated  wire  must  be  used.  The  current  must  be  of  suffi- 
cient voltage  to  make  the  filament  in  the  lamp  hot  and  bright. 
If  the  wire  is  not  properly  insulated,  it  is  dangerous  to  handle 
and  if  short  circuited  it  would  set  fire  to  objects  around  it. 
Connections  must  always  be  tightly  made,  and,  in  addition  to 
being  properly  twisted  together,  they  should  be  soldered  and 
taped,  Figs.  38,  39  and  40.  The  wires,  instead  of  being  tacked 
or  stapled,  must  be  wired  to  or  passed  through  insulating  knobs, 
Fig.  27.  If  wires  must  pass  through  the  joists  or  studding, 
porcelain  tubes,  Fig.  29,  are  used.  In  places  where  the  wires 
are  fished  through  walls  as  in  bell  wiring,  it  is  dangerous  to 
allow  the  wires  to  hang  without  being  fastened  to  insulators. 
Since  it  is  impossible  to  get  at  the  wire  to  do  this  circular  loom 
(flexible  tubing)  Fig.  28,  containing  insulated  wire  is  fished 
through.  In  some  instances,  instead  of  wires  being  fastened 
to  knobs,  they  are  run  in  moldings,  Fig.  30,  which  are  usually 
used  in  wiring  old  buildings,  or  through  conduits,  Fig.  31,  which 
are  usually  placed  in  the  walls  at  the  time  the  building  is  con- 
structed. 

Light  wiring  diagrams  look  much  like  bell  wiring  diagrams. 
The  method  of  reading  them  is  the  same,  the  symbols  only  being 
different.  Fig.  32  shows  three  lights  on  an  electric  circuit 
One  wire  may  be  considered  as  +  and  the  other  — .  The  lights 
are  places  between  these  wires,  bridging  a  part  of  the  current 


266        ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  41 


Attachment  P/ug 


Pull  Socket 


across  the  two  wires.  The  filament  in  a  light  bulb  offers  so 
much  more  resistance  than  the  ordinary  wire  that  it  becomes 
hot  and  bright,  thus  giving  off  light,  but  it  does  not  consume 
all  of  the  current  in  the  wires.  Lights  wired  in  this  fashion  are 
said  to  be  wired  in  multiple.  Fig.  33  illustrates  three  lights 
wired  in  multiple  but  they  are  all  controlled  from  one  switch. 
The  wiring  diagrams,  Figs.  32  to  37  inclusive,  show  various 
ways  of  wiring  different  circuits. 

Splices  and  taps  must  be  carefully  made.  Fig.  38  shows  the 
method  of  making  a  Western  Union  splice  and  Fig.  39  a  branch 
tap.  After  a  tight  connection  has  been  made,  the  joint  should 
be  soldered,  Fig.  40,  and  then  insulated,  first  with  rubber  tape 
and  then  with  friction  tape.  Connections  inside  of  switches  and 
sockets  must  be  securely  made  or  short  circuits  will  result. 
Since  it  takes  at  least  110  volts  of  current  to  operate  the  ordi- 
nary electric  light  bulb,  experimenting  with  light  wiring  circuits 
is  dangerous.  False  moves  or  faulty  connections  may  not  alone 
cause  fire  but  are  dangerous  for  the  workman.  Fig.  41  shows  a 
key  socket,  a  pull  socket  and  an  attachment  plug.  In  fastening 
wires  to  sockets,  switches,  etc.,  the  insulation  should  be  peeled 
back  just  far  enough  to  give  enough  bare  wire  to  fasten  under 
the  fastening  screw.  The  end  of  the  wire  should  be  bent  around 
tfie  screw  in  a  clockwise  direction. 


INDEX 


Adze — 16. 

Anvil— 214. 

Axe— 16. 

Bell    wiring— 255. 

Bench    hook— 24. 

Bits— 20. 

Blue   prints— 84. 

Bolts— 47. 

Brace — 20. 

Brad    awl— 20. 

Cane    webbing — 06. 

Caning— 63. 

Canning — 167. 

Carborundum — 31. 

Chickens,   common  breeds — 172. 

Chisels— 13. 

Clamps,   cabinet — 25. 

Coke— 213. 

Common   joints — 90. 

Concrete— 188. 

Concrete,    consistency   of — 191. 

Concrete    mixtures — 189. 

Corrugated    fasteners— 51. 

Corundum — 30. 

Countersink— 22. 

Cutting    bill— 86. 

Dividers— 18. 

Dowels — 48. 

Drawing    instruments — 75. 

Drill,    garden— 163. 

Drill    presses — 215. 
Dynamo — 262. 

Electric    motor — 262. 

Electricity— 252. 

Emery — 30. 

Escutcheon    pins — 151. 

Factory    organization — 158. 

Filler— 56. 

Finishing   woodwork — 96. 

Floor   plans— 89. 

Forge— 213. 

Framing    square — 17. 

Gardening,  projects  in — 160. 

Getting   out    stock — 93. 

Glass — 58. 

Glazing— 60. 

Glue — 47. 

Gouges — 13. 

Grinding   tools — 32. 

Growth    in    trees — 30. 

Half-soling— 246. 

Hammers— 26. 

Hand    drill— 21. 

Hand    screws — 24. 

Hatchets— 16. 

Heeling  shoes — 244. 

Hinges— 49. 

Hog   rations— 186. 

Hogs,    breeds   of — 182. 

Hotbed— 160. 

Iron— 212. 

Jigs    in    woodworking — 154. 

Job   press — 237. 

Knives — 15. 

Knots,    cause    of — 38. 

Lettering— 81. 

Light    wiring — 265. 

Locks    and    catches — 50. 

Lumber,    grades  of — 39. 

Lumber   measure — 39. 

Lumber,   plain   sawed — 38. 

Lumber,    quarter   sawed — 38. 


Magnetic   force — 254. 

Mallets— 27. 

Marking  gauge — 17. 

Measuring   and   laying   out — 93. 

Mechanical   drawing — 73. 

Metal    operations— 213. 

Mill   bills— 88. 

Mitre   box — 25. 

Nails— 42. 

Paint— 53. 

Paper,    how    made — 226. 

Paper,    kinds   and   uses   of  each — 230. 

Patching  shoes — 251. 

Patent   leather— 243. 

Planes — 9. 

Planing,    steps    of — 93. 

Plates,    metal — 51. 

Portland   cement— 188. 

Poultry    rations — 177. 

Prepared   seatings — 71. 

Printing— 231. 

Proof   reading— 237. 

Putty — 61. 

Quads   and    spaces — 233. 

Rasp— 29. 

Riveting — 216. 

Rubber  heels — 246. 

Rush  seating — 67. 

Sandpaper — 52. 

Saw  horse — 23. 

Scraper,    cabinet — 29. 

Screw    drivers — 28. 

Screws,   wood — 44. 

Screws,  lag — 46. 

Seed   corn,    selection   of — 169. 

Selecting  stock— 92. 

Sewing    shoe    soles — 241. 

Shingling— 174. 

Shoe    repairing— 241. 

Shop    equipment — 3. 

Soldering — 218. 

Spading    concrete — 190.     . 

Spoke-shave — 10. 

Spraying    mixtures — 106. 

Stain — 55. 

Steel— 212. 

Staples— 51. 

Sterilization— 167. 

Tanning— 242. 

Tapping  a  nut — 219. 

T  bevel— 19. 

Telegraph    circuits— 259,     2CO. 

Telegraph    codes— 260. 

Threading    a    nut— 219. 

Transplanting — 163. 

Tree   repairing — 209. 

Tricks    in    woodworking — 154. 

Try    square — 17. 

Type— 232. 

Type   cases — 232. 

Type  setting— 233. 

Upholstering— 69. 

Varnish— 57. 

Vises— 24. 

Wax,    finishing— 57. 

Waxed   end — 248. 

Welding— 217. 

Whetting  tools— 33. 

Wood,    qualities    of — 40. ' 

Wood,   uses  of — 41. 

Wood    and    lumber — 35. 

Wrenches — 28. 


INDEX— Continued. 
Woodworking  Projects. 


Ash    sifters— 104. 

Barn  door— 91. 

Bench   hook— 23,   74. 

Bench  stop — 23. 

Bird  houses — 102. 

Boiler   frame   for  canning — 167. 

Book  racks — 73,  108. 

Book  shelves — 110. 

Bread    board — 12G. 

Broom    holder — 152. 

Bulletin  board — 13G. 

Bushel    crate— 166. 

Chair— 68. 

Checker  board— 128. 

Chicken  coops— 180,   181. 

Clothes  racks— 112. 

Collar  box — 116. 

Combination  wagon  box — 149. 

Concrete    measuring    boxes — 190. 

Concrete  forms— 193  to  208. 

Costumer — 134. 

Cucumber     screen — 1G5. 

Cutting    boards — 10G. 

Dibble— 163. 

Dog    house — 150. 

Doubletree— 150. 

Drawing  board— 12G. 

Dry    mash    hopper — 178. 

Egg  candler — 180. 

Electric   lamps— 124. 

Farm  gates — 14G. 

Flower   box— 98. 

Fly  screen — 138. 

Fly    swatter — 138. 

Fly  trap— 138. 

Footstool— 73. 

Garden  marker — 164. 

Garden    roller — 1G5. 

Hay  fork  -holder— 152. 

Hen's   nest  case — 177. 

Hog   chute — 18G. 

Hog  house— 182. 

Hog   rack— 187. 


Hog   trough — 185. 
Hotbed— 161,   162. 
House    plant-tray — 160. 
Ironing  board — 114. 
Jar  cover — 106. 
Jumping  standard — 122. 
Kitchen  table— 130. 
Letter  holder — 108. 
Library   table— 140. 
Medicine   cabinet— 116. 
Mission  stools — 67,    132. 
Mitre  box— 24. 
"Nail  box— 106. 
Oats    sprouting    tray — 179. 
Pastry   board— 12G. 
Pedestals— 128. 
Pen   tray — 108. 
Pencil   sharpener — 106. 
Plant   stand — 118. 
Plant   trellis— 98. 
Porch  swing — 142. 
Poultry   feed   trough — 179. 
Poultry   feeding   crate — 181. 
Poultry  grit  box — 178. 
Poultry  house — 173. 
Sandpaper   block — 52,    106. 
Saw    buck — 144. 
Saw   horse — 23,    144. 
Seed  corn  drier — 170. 
Seed  corn  tester — 171. 
Serving  tray — 130. 
Shoe   shining   cabinet — 118. 
Sled— 114. 
Sleeve  board— 114. 
Step  ladder — 120. 
Stone    boat — 152. 
Telephone    stand — 87. 
Three  horse  evener— 150. 
Tomato  trellis— 100. 
Vaulting  standard— 122. 
Wagon  jack— 150..       ' 
Wash  tub  bench — 100. 
Weaving    frame — 120. 


Concrete  Projects. 


Aquarium  castles — 208. 
Baseball   home    plate — 193. 
Concrete  floors — 205. 
Door  weight — 193. 
Fence  posts — 195. 
Flower  box — 200. 
Flower   urn — 202. 
Foot    scraper— 194. 


Angle   irons — 222. 

Bench    frame— 223. 

Bolt— 225. 

Brace— 222. 

Bracket— 222. 

Foot    scraper    iron — 224. 

Gate    hinge— 224. 

Hoops— 222. 

Lawn  roller  handles — 223. 


Hog  trough — 198. 
Hotbed— 197. 
Lawn  pedestal — 201. 
Lawn  seat — 203. 
Roller— 206. 
Side  walk— 204. 
Tree    repairing— 209. 
Watering   trough — 199. 


Metal  Projects. 


Mending  broken  irons — 216. 
Mortise  templet — 155. 
Porch    swing   hooks — 224. 
Reinforcing     plate— 222,     225. 
Ring  bolt^-225. 
Sack   holder— 223. 
Toy  wagon   axle — 224. 
Wagon    bed    stake    iron — 223. 
Wagon    end-gate    rod — 225. 


Half -soling— 246,    247. 
Heeling— 244,    245. 


Shoe  Repairing. 

I    Patching— 250. 


Electric   Wiring   and    Construction. 


Bell    wiring    circuits — 258. 
Electric    motor — 262. 
Insulating — 266. 

Light  wiring  circuits— 263,   264, 
Splicing    a   wire — 266. 


265. 


Tapping   a  wire — 266. 
Telegraph    circuit — 259,    260. 
Telegraph  key — 261. 
Telegraph   sounder — 261. 


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